tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-56333949210436806442024-03-20T21:12:07.768+06:00Anand Dikshit's Blog..Informative Educational Support for Students...
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.comBlogger25125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-839636573025950602022-09-16T11:05:00.005+06:002023-01-14T16:00:11.650+06:00English Made Easy: A complete Guide Book of English Language and Literature for BHSEC Students of Bhutan.<p><br /></p><p><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJkG3OJy1ysZUOvpZZCp-8hLVzKKaV2LtLAcNj9HXct2u9IkD_sZPvlcReAVQApZOs7lni8ruO3OdfDanOAPjI7iy0NosCRRv61XtiHWZDwZn1pylRtFLkLvAYewVZMSAdoUSV_aW2kT-eEj1b-MvNXmXzTN9bgRyp_UHUAM0v4okFvgun8Ksc3eTb/s1395/1663304289183.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0yfz6Bv6lUJPqn2XWjV2ep0-1YgVrHDZPbYzeqE-sApyaDIUnW2GlQvgqQdoPHeJpsLp_4jbkmK_Dv_VQuebmvvfBNAmSExDDWJ7Yskc_ZaslnrWop9nfY2jKL7OfmaA0Opd4bOqFMeNPC-KIqfK4ALYmj5-oVm0mBkXvqThdq4dSgsi_2b_I846l/s3165/1663304289191.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="3165" data-original-width="2147" height="274" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0yfz6Bv6lUJPqn2XWjV2ep0-1YgVrHDZPbYzeqE-sApyaDIUnW2GlQvgqQdoPHeJpsLp_4jbkmK_Dv_VQuebmvvfBNAmSExDDWJ7Yskc_ZaslnrWop9nfY2jKL7OfmaA0Opd4bOqFMeNPC-KIqfK4ALYmj5-oVm0mBkXvqThdq4dSgsi_2b_I846l/w214-h274/1663304289191.jpg" width="214" /></a><img border="0" data-original-height="1395" data-original-width="1080" height="272" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJkG3OJy1ysZUOvpZZCp-8hLVzKKaV2LtLAcNj9HXct2u9IkD_sZPvlcReAVQApZOs7lni8ruO3OdfDanOAPjI7iy0NosCRRv61XtiHWZDwZn1pylRtFLkLvAYewVZMSAdoUSV_aW2kT-eEj1b-MvNXmXzTN9bgRyp_UHUAM0v4okFvgun8Ksc3eTb/w203-h272/1663304289183.jpg" width="203" /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /><br /></p>Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-45976875417004533652020-06-14T15:00:00.004+06:002022-04-14T11:22:11.067+06:00The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare.<div dir="ltr" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhkcmw97qGBB_lz-mlGoQRdWqZoRSjeJWWUn0PIrGDSyWjCR5ZKlxhJYkxKFfUoKJ0gyHaKaE32pbNi9GeA-uwwEFXjYh8DBLrFNfbPULthYdjA9pI3O0e6DTzGPinh4OgIUljyjhUqdo/s500/51v8rQxR3wL.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="500" data-original-width="314" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhkcmw97qGBB_lz-mlGoQRdWqZoRSjeJWWUn0PIrGDSyWjCR5ZKlxhJYkxKFfUoKJ0gyHaKaE32pbNi9GeA-uwwEFXjYh8DBLrFNfbPULthYdjA9pI3O0e6DTzGPinh4OgIUljyjhUqdo/s320/51v8rQxR3wL.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">An Introduction to the Playwright:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">William
Shakespeare was a renowned English poet, playwright, and actor born in 1564 in
Stratford-upon-Avon. His birthday is most commonly celebrated on 23 April, which is also believed to be the date he died in
1616.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Shakespeare
was a prolific writer during the Elizabethan and Jacobean ages of British
theatre (sometimes called the English Renaissance or the Early Modern Period).
Shakespeare’s plays are perhaps his most enduring legacy, but they are not all
he wrote. Shakespeare’s poems also remain popular to this day. </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Shakespeare's Work:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">Shakespeare's
works include 38 plays, 2 narrative poems, 154 sonnets, and a variety of other
poems. No original manuscripts of Shakespeare's plays are known to exist today.
It is actually thanks to a group of actors from Shakespeare's company that we
have about half of the plays at all. They collected them for publication after
Shakespeare died, preserving the plays. These writings were brought together in
what is known as the First Folio ('Folio' refers to the size of the paper
used). It contained 36 of his plays, but none of his poetry. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Shakespeare’s
legacy is as rich and diverse as his work; his plays have spawned countless
adaptations across multiple genres and cultures. His plays have had an enduring
presence on stage and film. His writings have been compiled in various
iterations of The Complete Works of William Shakespeare, which include all of
his plays, sonnets, and other poems. William Shakespeare continues to be one of
the most important literary figures of the English language.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Shakespeare's Life:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">Records
survive relating to William Shakespeare’s family. Through these, we can gain an
understanding of the context of Shakespeare's early life and the lives of his
family members. John Shakespeare married Mary Arden, and together they had
eight children. John and Mary lost two daughters as infants, so William became
their eldest child. John Shakespeare worked as a glove-maker, but he also
became an important figure in the town of Stratford by fulfilling civic
positions. His elevated status meant that he was even more likely to have sent
his children, including Shakespeare, to the local grammar school. John was
awarded a coat of arms, now displayed on the monument above the Shakespeare
grave in Holy Trinity Church. Versions of the Shakespeare coat of arms can also
be seen on Shakespeare’s Birthplace, outside of the Shakespeare Centre, and
above the entrance to Shakespeare’s New Place.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">William
Shakespeare would have lived with his family in their house on Henley Street
until he turned eighteen. When he was eighteen, Shakespeare married Anne
Hathaway, who was twenty-six. It was a rushed marriage because Anne was already
pregnant at the time of the ceremony. Together they had three children. Their
first daughter, Susanna, was born six months after the wedding and was later
followed by twins Hamnet and Judith. Hamnet died when he was just 11 years old.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Shakespeare in London:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">Shakespeare's
career jump-started in London. When did he go there? We do know Shakespeare's
twins were baptised in 1585, and Shakespeare established his reputation in
London by 1592. But the intervening years are considered a mystery. Scholars
generally refer to these years as ‘The Lost Years’.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">During
his time in London, Shakespeare became a founding member of The Lord
Chamberlain’s Men, a company of actors. The company would later become The
King’s Men under the patronage of King James I (from 1603). During his time in
the company Shakespeare wrote many of his most famous tragedies, such as King
Lear and Macbeth, as well as great romances, like The Winter’s Tale and The
Tempest. </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">New Place:</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">In
1597, William Shakespeare bought a home called New Place in
Stratford-upon-Avon. Recent archaeological evidence discovered on the site of
Shakespeare’s New Place shows that Shakespeare was only ever an intermittent
lodger in London. This suggests he divided his time between Stratford and
London (a two or three-day commute). In his later years, he may have spent more
time in Stratford-upon-Avon than scholars previously thought. Shakespeare died
in Stratford-upon-Avon on 23 April 1616 at the age of 52. He is buried in the
sanctuary of the parish church, Holy Trinity.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p></div>Introduction to The Merchant of Venice:</font></div>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Written sometime between 1596 and 1598, <i>The Merchant of Venice </i>is
classified as both an early Shakespearean comedy (more specifically, as a
"Christian comedy") and as one of the Bard's problem plays; it is a
work in which good triumphs over evil, but serious themes are examined and some
issues remain unresolved. </font></span><span face="raleway, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16px; font-weight: 400; text-align: left;"> </span><font face="times"><span style="font-size: 16px; font-weight: 400; text-align: left;">Its basic plot outline, with the characters of the merchant, the poor suitor, the fair lady, and the villainous Jew, is found in a number of contemporary Italian story collections, and Shakespeare borrowed several details, such the choice of caskets that Portia inflicts on all her suitors, from preexisting sources. </span><i style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; font-weight: 400; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">The Merchant of Venice’</i><span style="font-size: 16px; font-weight: 400; text-align: left;">s Italian setting and marriage plot are typical of Shakespeare’s earlier comedies, but the characters of Portia, Shakespeare’s first great heroine, and the unforgettable villain Shylock elevate this play to a new level</span><span style="color: #292c2e; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 400; text-align: left;">.</span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;">In <i>Merchant of Venice</i>, </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;">Shakespeare<span style="color: blue;"> </span>wove together two ancient folk tales, one involving a
vengeful, greedy creditor trying to exact a pound of flesh, the other involving
a marriage suitor's choice among three chests and thereby winning his (or her)
mate. Shakespeare's treatment of the first standard plot scheme centers around
the villain of <i>Merchant</i>, the Jewish moneylender Shylock, who seeks a
literal pound of flesh from his Christian opposite, the generous, faithful
Antonio. Shakespeare's version of the chest-choosing device revolves around the
play's Christian heroine Portia, who steers her lover Bassanio toward the
correct humble casket and then successfully defends his bosom friend Antonio
from Shylock's horrid legal suit.</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><span style="font-weight: normal;">In the modern, post-Holocaust readings of </span><i style="font-weight: normal;">Merchant</i><span style="font-weight: normal;">, the
problem of anti-Semitism in the play has loomed large. A close reading of the
text must acknowledge that Shylock is a stereotypical caricature of a cruel, money-obsessed
medieval Jew, but it also suggests that Shakespeare's intentions in </span><i style="font-weight: normal;">Merchant
</i><span style="font-weight: normal;">were not primarily anti-Semitic. Indeed, the dominant thematic complex in</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><i style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">The Merchant of Venice </span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;">is much more universal than specific religious or racial hatred;
it spins around the polarity between the surface attractiveness of gold and the
Christian qualities of mercy and compassion that lie beneath the flesh.</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">List of Characters in The Merchant of Venice:<o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Antonio:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> a merchant of Venice and
intimate friend of Bassanio.</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Salerio:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> friend to both Antonio
and Bassanio.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Solanio:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> friend to both Antonio and
Bassanio.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -108pt;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Bassanio:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> a young
gentleman of Venice in financial difficulty; suitor to Portia and intimate
friend of Antonio.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><font style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Lorenzo:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> friend of Bassanio and
Antonio; Christian lover of the Jewish woman, </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Jessica:<span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span></span></font><span style="font-weight: normal;">daughter
of Shylock; Jewish lover of the Christian man, Lorenzo.</span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span lang="EN-US"><font face="times" size="4"><o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -108pt;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Gratiano:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> friend of Bassanio and
Antonio; joins Bassanio’s expedition to Belmont; romancer of Nerissa.</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Portia:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> a wealthy
heiress of Belmont; she approves of Bassanio’s suit to her.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Nerissa:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> Portia’s waiting woman and
confidante; approves Gratiano’s advances.</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Shylock:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> a Jewish moneylender of
Venice.</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Morocco:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> an African Prince and suitor
to Portia.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -108pt;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Launcelot
Gobbo:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> a clown (comical member of the lower
class); ex-servant of Shylock who enters into Bassanio’s service.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Old Gobbo:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> Launcelot’s father; nearly blind
from age.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Leonardo:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> servant of Bassanio.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Jessica:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> daughter of Shylock;
Jewish lover of the Christian man, Lorenzo.</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Aragon:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> a prince; suitor to
Portia.</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Tubal:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> a friend of Shylock; a
Jew of Venice.</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Jailer:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> holds
Antonio prisoner.</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Balthasar:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> a servant of Portia.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">The
Duke of Venice:<span style="font-weight: normal;"> the highest authority in
Venice.</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Stephano:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> a messenger sent by Portia to
Lorenzo and Jessica.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"><i>Various
Magnificoes of Venice, Officers of the Court, Musicians, Servants, Messengers,
and Attendants</i><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Act I, Scenes 1-3: Summary and Analysis<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Act I, Scene 1<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">The Characters of the scene:</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Antonio:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> a merchant of Venice</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Salerio and
Solanio:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;">
friends to Bassanio and Antonio<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Bassanio:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> a young gentleman of Venice,
friend of Antonio</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Lorenzo:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> friend of Bassanio and
Antonio, loves Jessica</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Gratiano:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> friend of Bassanio and Antonio<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Summary:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
</h2><h2 style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">In
Venice, Antonio is depressed, though he is uncertain why. Salerio and Solanio
try to account for his sadness by suggesting he is worried about his merchant
ships sailing in dangerous waters. Antonio denies this, but can suggest nothing
in its place. Salerio and Solanio leave as Bassanio, Lorenzo, and Gratiano
enter. Gratiano and Lorenzo jest with Antonio, lifting his spirits slightly,
before departing. Left alone, Bassanio apologizes to Antonio for owing him a
great deal of money. Antonio tells him not to worry about it. Bassanio then
informs Antonio of a wealthy heiress in Belmont whom he wishes to court. The trouble
is, he needs to borrow more money from Antonio to outfit himself properly, in
order to compete with the many wealthier suitors. Bassanio suggests that, with
a little more money, he will improve his chances of repaying his debt to his
friend. Marrying the heiress will solve all of Bassanio’s financial problems.
Antonio readily agrees to this plan; however, as all of his capital is tied up
at the moment with his ships, he will be unable to lend money directly.
Bassanio instead can use Antonio’s name to obtain credit.</font></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Analysis:</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">This
scene is primarily exposition, conversation made to fill the audience in on the
various circumstances leading up to the events of the play. The audience learns
about Antonio’s generosity and successful business standing, Bassanio’s present
financial embarrassments, and the prospect of Portia’s wealth as the solution
to the latter’s problems. Crucial financial information about Antonio—which
will account for his future predicament—is revealed. His ships are out to sea,
tying up his available assets, and this will lead him to seek a loan from
Shylock. The news that his ships have been wrecked will make Antonio unable to
repay the money.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Act I, Scene 2<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">New Characters of the scene:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Portia:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> the wealthy heiress of Belmont<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Nerissa:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> her waiting woman</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Summary:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">In
Belmont, Portia confides to Nerissa her distaste for the provisions of her
father’s will. Portia’s father devised a test for anyone seeking her hand in
marriage. A would-be suitor must choose among three caskets (ornamental boxes)—one
gold, one silver, one lead—one of which contains permission to marry Portia.
The suitor must agree, however, that if he makes a wrong choice, he will spend
the rest of his days single. This situation is aggravated by Portia’s complete
distaste for any of her potential husbands. Nerissa names them all, while
Portia enumerates her particular dislikes of each. She takes heart in the news
that each has announced he will return home, fearing the strict consequences of
her father’s test. The two women suddenly remember Bassanio, whom they find
more appealing; however, they are interrupted in their praise by a messenger
who declares that her suitors seek an audience with her, and that a new
contestant, the Prince of Morocco, will arrive soon.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Analysis:</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">This
short scene primarily serves as the audience’s introduction to the plot of the
three caskets, which determines who may marry Portia. The test of the caskets
will be performed three times in the play, by Morocco in Act II, Scene 8,
Aragon in Act II, Scene 9, and Bassanio in Act III, Scene 2. The audience
learns here of Portia’s inclination toward Bassanio. Her resentment of her
father’s will is also significant; Portia is too independent to be told what to
do, as becomes clear when, later in the play, she takes matters into her own hands
to resolve Antonio’s plight. Apart from these important introductions, the
substance of the scene is largely comic, a series of jokes based on various
prevailing national and ethnic stereotypes as Portia disdains each suitor in
turn. As is the case with much of Shakespeare, this scene is an excuse for the
playwright to exercise his linguistic ingenuity in constructing clever
sentences, such as “When he is best he is a little worse than a man, and when
he is worst he is little better than a beast” (lines 86-88).<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Act I, Scene 3</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">New Character of the scene:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Shylock:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> a Jewish moneylender of Venice<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Summary</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">In
Venice, Bassanio negotiates with Shylock to borrow three thousand ducats
(monetary units) for three months, for which “Antonio shall be bound.” Shylock
doesn’t agree immediately, but wishes to speak to Antonio first. Antonio
enters, provoking Shylock to vent his hatred of him in an aside. Shylock claims
to hate Antonio for being a Christian, for loaning money to people in need
without charging interest, and for publicly slandering Shylock’s own business
practices. Antonio, despite his customary scruples against usury (moneylending
for interest), personally asks Shylock to loan Bassanio the money. Still
Shylock hesitates, reminding Antonio of the merchant’s past ill-treatment of
him and suggesting Antonio’s hypocrisy in now coming to him for a favor.
Antonio is nrepentant, however, claiming that they needn’t be friends in order
to do business together. Shylock then turns the tables on his adversaries,
suddenly announcing his intention to loan Bassanio the money out of “kindness,”
i.e., without charging interest. There is one catch, however: Antonio must go
with<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Shylock
to a notary and sign an agreement stating that if he fails to repay the loan on
time, he must allow Shylock to cut off a pound of his flesh. Shylock claims
this is “merry sport,” and Antonio readily agrees, treating the whole affair as
a gag. Bassanio, however, is alarmed at this arrangement and insists Antonio
not enter into the bargain. Antonio is not convinced of any real danger,
however, and agrees to meet with Shylock “forthwith” to sign the bond.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Analysis:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">This
is the most complicated scene thus far in the play. Its function is to
establish the second major<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">complication
of the plot, the bond for a pound of Antonio’s flesh. It also introduces the
audience to Shylock, possibly the most engaging character in the play. Beyond
these plot considerations, however, the ramifications of this scene are
immense.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">The
appearance of Shylock announces two of the play’s central issues: the
relationship between Jews and Christians, and the Venetian—and by association,
the Elizabethan—attitude toward usury. The animosity between Christians and
Jews is almost immediately established as the scene unfolds, and, although it
is Shylock who first calls these matters to the audience’s attention, Antonio
confirms that the hostility is mutual. The fact that Shylock is referred to as
“the Jew” by the others suggests that their contempt for him is more than
merely personal; to them, Shylock represents a group whom they are compelled to
dislike for religious and even racial reasons.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">It
is perhaps impossible for us to decide how much of the animosity between the
two Christians and Shylock is personal and how much is based on group identity.
Indeed, the characters move between both sets of reasons as if there were no
distinction between them, or as if their identities guaranteed the nature of
their personal relations. Shylock initiates hostilities in this scene,
informing Bassanio that, although he will transact business with him, “I will
not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray with you” (lines 34-5). Shylock
makes it clear in his speech—with the reference to “pork,” a food many Jewish
sects forbid its members to consume—that even their culinary differences are
religious. His initial expression of disgust for Antonio is explicitly
religion-oriented: “I hate him for he is a Christian” (line 39).</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Shylock’s
bitterness, however, next becomes a business matter; Antonio’s interest-free
loans to the needy “[bring] down/ The rate of usance” in Venice, affecting the
usurer’s profits. His complaint against Antonio then takes a personal turn, as
Shylock recalls, “he rails/ Even there where merchants most do congregate,/ On me,
my bargains, and my well-won thrift,/ Which he calls interest” (lines 45-8).
The personal tenor of Shylock’s hatred is magnified in a later speech, when he
confronts Antonio: “You call me misbeliever, cutthroat dog,/ And spet [spit]
upon my Jewish gabardine,/ And all for use of that which is mine own” (lines 108-10).
Clearly the religious dispute has moved to the level of personal insult, even
to mild scuffling. Antonio shows no remorse in the face of such accusations,
however, justifying his behavior on moral principles.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">The
issue of usury seems inextricable from the religious bickering. Antonio equally
despises Shylock for his moneylending practices as for his religion and race.
It is as if commerce and religion are the same; Antonio’s contempt for
Shylock’s usury may stem from his Christian faith, while for Shylock, there is
no contradiction between his profession and his religious convictions. There
is, obviously, no one interpretation of this scene which can satisfy all of its
possibilities. The Elizabethan distaste for usury no doubt inclined the play’s original
audience to side with Antonio on this matter. If this is the case, however, we
might, along with Shylock, detect certain hypocrisy in Antonio’s coming to him
for a loan in a time of need. His principles bend to practical considerations,
much like Elizabethan law, which made usury illegal but left provisions that it
wouldn’t be punished if the interest rate was less than 10%. An audience’s
feelings about Shylock matter a great deal in this scene, for either he will
appear as justifiably resentful of Antonio’s seemingly-unprovoked treatment of
him, or else as deserving such treatment for his beliefs and practices.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">One
final aspect of this scene that has been a source of contention among critics
concerns the agreement of a pound of flesh as collateral for the loan. Shylock
twice refers to the arrangement as “merry,” as though the whole affair is in no
way a serious one. Some readers of the play have taken him at his word; they
believe that he only becomes serious in his demand after Lorenzo, Antonio’s
friend, runs off with Shylock’s daughter Jessica, who in turn steals some of
her father’s money and possessions. Others argue that the entire arrangement is
from start to finish motivated by Shylock’s desire for revenge against Antonio.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Act I Commentary:</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Scene i</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">: Scene 1 introduces one of the
major plot points of the play as well as several of the key characters. When
Antonio, Salerio, and Solanio enter at the beginning of the scene, they are in
the midst of a discussion about why Antonio is depressed. This
"sadness," which Antonio claims to not know the source of, becomes clear
when he reveals to Bassanio that all of his fortunes are tied up to his ships
out at sea. It should also be noted that Antonio lies to Salerio and Solanio,
who both assume that Antonio is worried about his trade until Antonio reassures
them that "My ventures are not in one bottom trusted//Nor to one
place...Therefore my merchandise makes me not sad" (ll. 42-45). Antonio is
well aware that the practice of placing all of one's fortunes on sea trade is
treacherous, and because of this is unwilling to admit his situation to anyone
but Bassanio. Antonio's willingness to admit his troubles to Bassanio also
indicates the closeness of their relationship. Antonio not only confides in
Bassanio, but he often reciprocates by helping Bassanio with his problems, especially
the financial ones:<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">"To
you, Antonio,<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">I
owe the most in money and in love,<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">And
from your love I have a warranty<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">To
unburden all my plots and purposes<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">How
to get clear of all the debts I owe" (ll. 130-134).<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Bassanio,
then, has depended on Antonio several times before for both financial and
emotional support. It is because of this history that the main plot of the play
is set into motion. Bassanio comes to Antonio in this scene in order to borrow
more money so that he can pursue Portia. Unfortunately, Antonio has no money to
give him, but tells Bassanio to borrow upon Antonio's credit to get the sum
that he needs. This is the first example of Antonio's willingness to sacrifice
himself for Bassanio, and it is what leads Antonio into the bond that
jeopardizes his life.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Scene ii</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">: There are some
key comparisons between characters that are made in this scene. Like Antonio in
scene 1, Portia begins the scene by discussing her "sadness," which
is attributed to her marital situation. Another parallel between the two
characters is that, like Antonio, Portia cannot take action—she must accept the
suitor who chooses the right box, much like Antonio can do nothing but wait
until his ships return. Portia also shows a preference for Bassanio, whom she
has seen once before. However, unlike Antonio, Portia displays a good deal of
wit in this scene in order to alleviate her sadness, and while she is
distressed at the situation, she also takes the opportunity to ridicule her
suitors. Her insults show her great intelligence, a trait that will become
critical in Act IV, scene 1, and her playfulness, which also appears later on
in the play. Also, Portia's desire to act, which is in direct contrast to
Antonio's sad resignation to his situation, gives her the impetus to solve the
problem of the bond. Another character parallel that occurs in this scene is
that of Nerissa and Gratiano. In scene 1, Gratiano gives a great deal of advice
to Antonio to cheer him up, and Nerissa does the same in order to comfort her
mistress. Nerissa's advice, much like Gratiano's, do not necessarily make much
sense, and we begin to see by the end of the scene why it is that these two
characters will become engaged by the end of Act II.</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Scene iii</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">: Shylock, the
antagonist of the play, makes his first appearance in this scene. Bassanio, in
an effort to secure the 3,000 ducats he needs in order to woo Portia, resorts
to borrowing from Shylock. The Christian community of Venice hates Shylock
because he is a Jew and because he charges interest when he lends money.
Antonio in particular demonstrates a great deal of contempt for Shylock in this
scene, despite the fact that Bassanio is attempting to convince Shylock to lend
him money. When Shylock reminds Antonio that Antonio has insulted him
frequently in the Rialto, often calling him a dog, Antonio replies:<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">"I
am as like to call thee so again,<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">To
spit on thee again, to spurn thee too.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">If
thou wilt lend this money, lend it not<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">As
to thy friends...<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">But
lend it rather to thine enemy,<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Who
if he break, thou mayst with better face<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Exact
the penalty" (ll. 126-133).<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Antonio's
dislike of Shylock, although they have never met until this scene, will not be
abated even if Shylock agrees to lend money to Bassanio. This hatred of Jews by
Christians was typical in Shakespeare's day, and would not have been questioned
by an Elizabethan audience.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">The
religious prejudice in this play is not, however, one-sided. Shylock also hates
Antonio, as he reveals in an aside in the scene:<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">"I
hate him for he is a Christian;<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">But
more, for that in low simplicity<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">He
lends out money gratis and brings down<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">The
rate of usance here with us in Venice" (ll. 37-41).<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Shylock,
then, has two reasons for hating Antonio—his religion and, more importantly to
Shylock, his status as a competitor. Antonio's refusal to lend out money for
interest has damaged Shylock's business, which is why Shylock hopes to use this
opportunity to avenge himself upon Antonio.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">With
that vengeance and the insults of Antonio in mind, the bond proposed in this
scene becomes extremely problematic. Shylock proposes that Antonio give him a
pound of flesh if he fails to fulfill his part of the contract—a proposition
which horrifies Bassanio but amuses and relieves Antonio. It is not clear
whether or not Shylock actually intends to exact this payment at this point in
the play. Shylock wants revenge for the damage to his business and for the ill
treatment he receives, and he knows that a good deal of Antonio's wealth is at
sea, which can be a great risk. However, Antonio does have three months to
repay the debt, and Shylock does not know that all of Antonio's fortunes are
dependent upon his sea trade. This topic is also complicated by the evolving
ideas of the role of Shylock over the centuries. Shylock has been portrayed as
a buffoon and stock character, but has more recently been seen as a victim of
racism and cruelty. Critics who support the latter view have often argued that
it is unlikely that Shylock expects that Antonio would forfeit the contract at
this point. However, if Shylock is a buffoon, then he may most certainly expect
to secure a pound of Antonio's flesh. Shakespeare, of course, does not give us
a clear answer on the subject.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Act II, Scenes 1-9: Summary and Analysis<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Act II, Scene 1<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">New Character of the scene:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Morocco:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> an African prince, suitor to Portia</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Summary:</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">The
Prince of Morocco arrives at Portia’s house in Belmont, seeking her hand in
marriage. He asks Portia to disregard their racial difference and judge him
instead by his personal merits. Portia reminds Morocco that the choice is not
hers to make; he, like the other suitors, must face her father’s challenge of
the three caskets. She assures him, however, that she regards him “as fair/ As
any comer [she has] looked on yet/ For [her] affection” (lines 20-22). Morocco
laments that, in spite of his valor, mere chance may deprive him of Portia. Portia
refers him to the terms of her father’s will, which he accepts. They agree to
perform the test after dinner.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Analysis:</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">This
short scene introduces the audience to the Prince of Morocco, who will make the
first unsuccessful attempt to pass the test designed by Portia’s father to
determine who will marry her. In terms of the play’s themes, its chief interest
is its explorations of racial animosity, which we have seen earlier in the
encounter between Shylock and the two Christians. Morocco requests that Portia
“Mislike [him] not for [his] complexion” (line 1) but rather consider him for
his personal worth. Although Portia claims that this is her policy, the
sincerity of her claim is later called into question at the close of Act II
Scene 7. After Morocco fails the test and departs, Portia says in relief “A
gentle riddance…/ Let all of his complexion choose me so” (lines 78-9). Unlike
Shakespeare’s contemp¬oraries, who may have endorsed such sentiments, more
modern audiences might perhaps have an ugly impression of the attitudes of the
Christians in the play. Though Morocco is a minor character, such scenes may
inform the audience’s feeling about Shylock and his indictments of Christian
hypocrisy.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Act II, Scene 2<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">New Characters of the scene:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Launcelot Gobbo:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> ex-servant of Shylock<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Old Gobbo:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> Launcelot’s father<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Leonardo:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> servant of Bassanio</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Summary:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">This
scene opens with Launcelot Gobbo debating whether or not to leave Shylock’s
service. Just as he decides to quit, his near-blind father, Old Gobbo, arrives
with a gift for Shylock. Since his father doesn’t recognize him, Launcelot toys
with him for a time before revealing his identity. He asks his father to give
the gift instead to Bassanio—who subsequently enters with Leonardo—as a means
of begging a position in his household. The Gobbos make their pitch and
Bassanio accepts, hiring Launcelot on the spot. Bassanio then dispatches
Leonardo to prepare his household to receive Antonio for dinner. Gratiano
enters and asks Bassanio if he may attend him on his journey to Belmont.
Bassanio agrees, but not before cautioning Gratiano to curtail his ribaldry.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Analysis:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Little
of this scene actually bears much relation to the plot of the play, save the
establishment of Gratiano as Bassanio’s attendant. It is more or less an excuse
for Shakespeare to indulge his audience with a bit of linguistic comedy, in the
form of the Three Stooges-like double-talk spoken by the Gobbos. We should
note, however, that even in a scene as light as this one, Shakespeare keeps the
issue of racial hostility before his audience. Launcelot’s desire to leave
Shylock’s employ stems largely from the fact that his boss is Jewish, coupled
with his belief that the Jew “is a kind of devil” (line 24). Significantly,
Shylock is never referred to in this scene by name, but simply as “the Jew.”<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Act II, Scene 3<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">New Character of the scene:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Jessica:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"> daughter of Shylock</span><o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Summary:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">At
Shylock’s house, Jessica, his daughter, bids farewell to Launcelot as he
prepares to leave her father’s service. She entreats him to deliver a message
to Lorenzo. After he departs, she expresses her desire to marry Lorenzo and
become a Christian.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Analysis:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">This
scene sets in motion another important subplot—the romance between Shylock’s
daughter and<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Bassanio’s
and Antonio’s friend. Some critics speculate that it is Jessica’s departure
with Lorenzo, coupled with her theft of her father’s money and jewels that
pushes Shylock over the edge and provokes him to pursue the pound of Antonio’s
flesh in earnest. (Others, of course, claim that this was Shylock’s intention
all along.) The anti-Semitism of the play is fueled here by Jessica’s own
self-loathing, i.e., her desire to shed her own religion and become a
Christian.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Act II, Scene 4</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Summary:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Gratiano,
Lorenzo, Salerio, and Solanio prepare for an evening of street festivities.
Launcelot arrives to deliver Jessica’s message to Lorenzo. Lorenzo sends
Launcelot back with the reply “I will not fail her,” and instructs the
messenger to “Speak it privately.” Lorenzo explains to Gratiano Jessica’s plan
to flee her father.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Analysis:</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">This
is essentially a development of the subplot begun in Act II, Scene 3,
confirming the plan on Lorenzo’s end. Lorenzo magnifies the Christians’ dislike
of “Jew-for-Jews sake” in the following lines: “And never dare misfortune cross
[Jessica’s] foot,/ Unless she [i.e., misfortune] do it under the excuse,/ That
she [Jessica] is issue to a faithless Jew” (lines 35-37). In other words,
Lorenzo perceives the “flaw” of Jessica’s Jewishness as potentially outweighing
her personal merits.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Act II, Scene 5<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Summary:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Launcelot
has come to Shylock’s house to deliver the invitation for the usurer to dine
with Bassanio and Antonio. Shylock apparently overcomes his earlier religious
scruple against dining with the Christians and accepts. He cautions his
daughter against the Christian masquers (street-revelers); she is instructed to
keep the house shut tight. Before departing, Launcelot secretly informs Jessica
that Lorenzo will come by that night. Shylock quizzes his daughter on what just
passed between her and Launcelot, but she throws him off the scent. He
expresses satisfaction at having Launcelot leave his employ, and then exits to
dine at Bassanio’s house. Jessica prepares to flee.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Analysis:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Like
the two preceding scenes and the scene to follow, Act II, Scene 5 sets up the
circumstances under which Jessica can rob her father and escape with Lorenzo.
This scene perhaps fuels the interpretation that only after Jessica’s flight
does Shylock become serious in his desire to kill Antonio, as we might well
imagine Shylock’s feeling duped by the Christians (as though Bassanio lured him
away with the invitation to dinner so Lorenzo and Jessica could elope).<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Act II, Scene 6<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Summary:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Gratiano
and Salerio, dressed for the street festivities, stand before Shylock’s house,
awaiting Lorenzo. As soon as he arrives, Jessica appears “above” (i.e. on the
second level of the Elizabethan stage, presumably the second floor of Shylock’s
residence), disguised as a boy. Lorenzo recognizes her and identifies himself.
He asks her to come down and be his torchbearer for the revelry, although she
is embarrassed at her present appearance. Lorenzo persuades her to descend; on
her way out, Jessica pilfers more ducats from her father. Lorenzo, Jessica, and
Salerio depart as Antonio arrives. He detains Gratiano, informing him that the
masque is canceled and Bassanio shall sail that evening. This suits Gratiano,
and the two men exit to prepare.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Analysis:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;">This
scene more or less wraps up the subplot of Jessica’s and Lorenzo’s elopement,
though its </span><span style="font-weight: normal;">consequences—primarily
consisting of Shylock’s rage—will continue to be felt throughout the play.
Jessica and Lorenzo will flee to Belmont, Portia’s region, and will mind her
household in her absence. In many of Shakespeare’s comedies, there are two
separate locales, the court, where normal business occurs according to fairly
rigid codes, and a more magical realm where rules are suspended and
transformation is possible. In such plays, characters from the first realm
visit the second and, on their return to the first, feel renewed. It may be
Jessica’s and Lorenzo’s flight to Belmont and the play’s romantic final act
which have encouraged some critics to fit The Merchant of Venice into this
structural pattern. According to such an outline, Venice would be the narrow
rule-bound court while Belmont serves as the enchanted land, just like the
forest of Arden in </span><i style="font-weight: normal;">As You Like It </i><span style="font-weight: normal;">or the woods outside Athens in </span><i style="font-weight: normal;">A
Midsummer Night’s Dream</i><span style="font-weight: normal;">. But this is an over-simplification of </span><i style="font-weight: normal;">The
Merchant</i><span style="font-weight: normal;">, a critical attempt to force it into a pre-ordained pattern rather
than attend to the play’s particulars. It ignores, for one, the circumstance of
Portia’s father’s will and the challenge of the three caskets. Belmont seems to
be as strictly bound by legality and technicality as Venice, and much of the
play is devoted to subverting or accommodating the letter of the law in both
cities. If anything, The Merchant of Venice might foreshadow Shakespeare’s
later, so-called “problem comedies,” such as Measure for Measure, in which the
levity is tempered by threats of danger. The possibility exists that Portia
could end up with an undesirable husband, and the threat to Antonio’s life
according to the terms of Shylock’s bond casts an even darker shadow.</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Act II, Scene 7<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4">Summary:<span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Meanwhile,
back in Belmont, Morocco prepares to undergo the challenge of the three caskets
in order to win Portia’s hand, while the lady in question looks on. The prince
surveys each casket and its inscription. The first is made of gold and bears
the message “Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire.” The second, of
silver, reads “Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves.” The third,
finally, is made of lead and warns “Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he
hath.” Portia informs Morocco that the correct casket contains her picture,
signifying success. The prince then deliberates for some time, weighing both factors:
the material of each casket and the message on it. By a process of elimination,
he chooses the gold one. Much to his chagrin, it contains a death’s head and a
scroll informing him of his error. Upset, the prince makes a gracious but hasty
exit, and Portia expresses her relief at his lack of success.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Analysis:<o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">This
is the first of three scenes (Act II, Scene 7, Act II, Scene 9, and Act III,
Scene 2) displaying the challenge of the three caskets in action. The interest
these scenes generate is, in some respects, not a dramatic one, for although
the fear of an undesirable marriage is a very real one for Portia, it is a
great deal less of one for her audience. Indeed, the progressive workings of
these scenes are so formulaic that they are almost without any drama at all.
Each of the three caskets is successively chosen by each of the three suitors,
no choice is repeated, and, of course, the winning casket is the last one
picked. By the time Bassanio arrives in Belmont, the audience is well aware of
which choice is correct and is simply waiting for him to make it. This
contrived inevitability need not be considered a flaw, however; unlike, say,
the final scene of a detective drama, where plot and plausibility are of
extreme importance, one doesn’t read Shakespearean comedy with such demands.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">The
spirit of comedy here suspends issues of realistic plausibility. The question
then becomes, what is the interest these scenes hold for an audience?
(Remember, Shakespeare was a successful and popular showman. He wouldn’t have
dropped three such scenes into his play unless they had other, non-dramatic
attractions.) The value of these scenes, perhaps, lies in the issues of reading
and interpretation which they bring to the foreground. Indeed, the bulk of Act
II, Scene 7 (lines 13-60) is devoted to the reasoning process by which Morocco
arrives at his choice of the gold casket. What the challenge of the caskets
reveals is the flexibility and ambiguity of language, and in this revelation, a
reader or theater-goer may find an analogy to his or her own experience of the
play. As the need or desire to analyze Shakespeare’s plays has already made us
aware, certain displays of language require interpretation in order for someone
to be able to act on them or even to decide what to think about them. The
suitors of Portia engage in a task not terribly different from the audience’s
own, or from the director’s own when he or she decides, for example, how the part
of Shylock ought to be acted. <o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">It
is important to remember that the choice of the lead casket is only obvious and
inevitable in hindsight; Morocco is not to be deemed a fool for his incorrect
choice. We might even say that, of all of Portia’s suitors, the Prince is the
one most unfairly duped by the process of casket selection. His interpretation
of the inscription “Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire” as
signifying Portia is a sound one, for as he points out, “All the world desires
her; From the four corners of the earth they come to kiss this shrine, this mortal
breathing saint” (lines 38-40). The courting of Portia is central to The
Merchant of Venice; it sets the entire plot in motion, as Bassanio’s need of
additional capital to outfit himself is the reason Antonio becomes indebted to
Shylock in the first place. Perpetual chastity—the penalty for choosing the
wrong casket—is a highly improbable interpretation of “what many men desire.”
It is, indeed, the opposite of desire. Whereas it is relatively easy to imagine
the silver casket’s inscription as the wrong choice (i.e., the man in question
may not “deserve” Portia and may rather deserve the punishment for his
presumptuousness), an audience may very well feel that Morocco has been lied
to. The underhandedness with which Morocco is treated might be, however, in
keeping with the racial hostilities permeating the play. As Shylock is
automatically excluded by the others for his Jewishness, the Prince is disliked,
among other reasons perhaps, for his skin color. Morocco’s first utterance in
the play (line 1) is a plea for racial tolerance; he is on the defensive at the
outset. Although Portia assures him in Act II, Scene 1 that his race is not a
factor in her acceptance—and we must assume this is true, insofar as, by the
rules of her father’s will, Portia must marry whoever makes the right
choice—her tolerance is called into question at the end of this scene. After
Morocco departs, Portia breathes a sigh of relief and says “Let all of his
complexion choose me so” (line 79), continuing the theme in the play that one
is automatically included or excluded from the circle of favorable people in
Christian society according to one’s religion or race. Portia can’t even</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">imagine meeting a black man who could satisfy
her and dismisses “all” of them in one sentence.</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Act II, Scene 8<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Summary:<o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">This
scene consists entirely of a brief conversation between Salerio and Solanio,
aimed at informing the audience of a variety of events which have occurred
while the scene in Belmont was taking place. The audience learns that Shylock
has discovered his deception, that his daughter has run off with his money and Lorenzo.
Shylock is white with rage, much to the amusement of Christian Venice. Salerio
reveals that Bassanio’s ship is underway for Belmont. He also reports the news
that a Venetian vessel has been wrecked in the English Channel, and worries
that it might be Antonio’s. Solanio recalls witnessing Bassanio’s departure,
and Antonio’s melancholy at their separation. Salerio and Solanio resolve to
seek Antonio out to attempt to cheer him.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Analysis:<o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">This
is another scene of pure exposition, providing the audience with information
crucial to advancing various strains of the plot as they currently stand. Some
critics have made much of Shylock’s confused lamentation concerning his
daughter and his ducats, ascribing various aspects to his character based upon
his equating of the two. One ought to keep in mind, however, that this is a
reported speech; the audience doesn’t witness Shylock making such a spectacle,
which mitigates the speech’s effect on the audience.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Other
critics have suggested the possibility of a homosexual relationship between
Bassanio and Antonio, or at least a strong homosexual attachment to his friend
on Antonio’s part. It could be argued that Antonio’s general sadness throughout
the play stems from the prospect of his intimate friend turning away from their
love by entering a heterosexual partnership with Portia. While the evidence of
a sexual friendship between Bassanio and Antonio is too scant to insist on, it
is clear that the latter’s attachment for the former extends beyond the bounds
of simple friendship.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Not
only does Antonio loan Bassanio money with only a shaky prospect of repayment,
but he freely and willingly risks his life for his friend’s happiness. Clearly
Bassanio is Antonio’s primary attachment, which makes it no surprise that, in a
play that ends with three marriages, Antonio remains conspicuously single.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Act II, Scene 9<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">New Character of the scene:<o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4" style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Aragon:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"> a prince, suitor to Portia<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Summary:<o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">The
Prince of Aragon undertakes the challenge of the caskets to win Portia’s hand,
agreeing to abide by the rules of her father’s will. He dismisses the lead
casket immediately, not thinking it worth the “hazard.” He next considers the
golden chest, reading its inscription of “what many men desire” as implying a
lack of discrimination. Finally, he selects the silver, believing he must
“deserve” that which he seeks. Much to his dismay, however, the silver casket
contains a fool’s head and a scroll informing him of his error. Aragon leaves.
A messenger then arrives, informing Portia that a Venetian lord is on his way
to try to win her. Nerissa hopes aloud that it is Bassanio.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;"><font face="times" size="4">Analysis:<o:p style="font-weight: normal;"></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><font face="times" size="4"><font style="font-weight: normal;">This
is the second of the three casket selecting scenes. Aragon is a bolder,
less-subtle reasoner than Morocco and makes his incorrect choice quickly, firm
in his belief of his own merit. Yet for that, his justification for choosing
the silver casket is an eloquent one and may arouse an audience’s admiration.
The casket’s own interpretation of what its selector “deserves” (i.e. the
presumptuous man is a fool and deserves to be treated to a fool’s head) is,
however, a more justifiable one than that of the gold casket.</font><font face="Times New Roman, serif"><o:p></o:p></font></font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US"><font face="times" size="4">Act II Commentary:<o:p></o:p></font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b><span lang="EN-US">Scene 1</span></b><span lang="EN-US">: The Prince of Morocco, who is
African, begs Portia to not be prejudiced against him because of his complexion.
While Portia indicates that she does not dislike him any more than any of the
other suitors who have come to call, we know from her statements in Act I,
scene 2, that she does not like any of the suitors so far, making this a
misleading statement that will become clear later in Act II.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b><span lang="EN-US">Scene 2</span></b><span lang="EN-US">: This scene
functions as comic relief. Launcelot Gobbo, who is about to leave Shylock's
employment and attempt to work for Bassanio, first argues with himself as to
whether or not he should run away from Shylock. He decides to follow the
"fiend" and run, despite the loyalty that he should owe to his
master. On the way to Bassanio, Launcelot encounters his blind father and
decides to trick him by telling him that his son is dead. These two actions
show that although Launcelot, although Christian, does not necessarily act like
one. However, since he is one of the clowns of the play, he will not be
condemned for it. Meanwhile, the other "clown" of the play, Gratiano,
begs Bassanio to take him along on the trip to Belmont. Bassanio, knowing
Gratiano's temper and playfulness, warns him that he had better behave and not
interfere with Bassanio's pursuit of Portia. This is another example of the
comic Christian who, although he does not behave the way he is expected to,
will not be punished because he is a clown.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b><span lang="EN-US">Scene 3</span></b><span lang="EN-US">: This scene
introduces Jessica, Shylock's daughter, who is about to elope with Lorenzo, a
friend of Antonio and Bassanio. This scene demonstrates some aspects of
Shylock's character as well as furthering the subplot of the Jessica-Lorenzo
relationship. Jessica expresses both her sorrow at losing Launcelot and her hatred
of living with her father by commenting that her home is "hell" and
that Launcelot alleviated some of the problems with his humor. She also reveals
that she is ashamed to be her father's daughter and that she is nothing like
him. All of this would indicate that the Venetian dislike of Shylock is
justified, because his own daughter does not like him. Jessica even goes so far
as to plan on becoming Christian when she elopes with Lorenzo.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b><span lang="EN-US">Scene 4</span></b><span lang="EN-US">: The plans for
the elopement of Jessica and Lorenzo are solidified in this scene. Lorenzo,
while planning with Gratiano, Salerio, and Solanio, receives Jessica's letter
from Launcelot, which explains how to get her out of the house. The irony of
the plan is that Jessica must break some rules in order to succeed: she must
dress as a torchbearer (or cross dress, as torchbearers are male), and she will
participate in a masque, which her father will forbid her to even watch in the
next scene. Jessica, then, will act like a Christian in order to marry and
actually become one.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b><span lang="EN-US">Scene 5</span></b><span lang="EN-US">: This scene draws contrasts
between the Jewish mindset, as represented by Shylock, and the dominant Christian
behaviors in Venice. Shylock, who prefers not to dine with Christians, has
agreed to eat with Bassanio and Antonio in order to seal the bond. Shylock, who
believes in omens, has a dream about moneybags, which he considers bad luck,
and does not want to go to dinner, although he chooses to. Meanwhile, Shylock
orders Jessica not to participate in the masque that will come, and to lock
herself away from the Christians, because he wants to maintain a
"sober" house, as opposed to the Christian frivolity about to occur.
Not only is Jessica planning on participating in the frivolity, as we know from
the previous scene, but she will become a member of the community by marrying
Lorenzo.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b><span lang="EN-US">Scene 6</span></b><span lang="EN-US">: Love is not
always as devoted as it should be in this scene. Lorenzo, who has ordered his
friends to meet him at Shylock's house, is late, which Gratiano notes as odd
because lovers are usually early. Jessica, on the other hand, tests Lorenzo's
love one last time before leaving. She also is embarrassed to be seen as a boy,
which should not be her primary thought while she is eloping with her lover.
However, both get underway despite this with a good deal of Shylock's money and
jewels.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b><span lang="EN-US">Scene 7</span></b><span lang="EN-US">: In this scene,
the prince of Morocco makes his choice of the caskets. The inscriptions on the caskets
display what love means to different people. To some, love is gaining one's
desire, and this is embodied in the gold casket. However, desire is not
necessarily love, and those who confuse the two are doomed to unhappiness. It
is for this reason that gold is the wrong choice, and Shakespeare warns us with
this casket that we should not be fooled by appearances, nor should we be led
by our desires, which will only bring death and corruption. Portia's last
comment in this scene is critical. When the prince leaves, Portia says: "A
gentle riddance. Draw the curtains, go. Let all of his complexion choose me
so" (ll. 78-79). This statement shows Portia's racism, which she attempted
to hide in scene 1. Although Portia is arguably the most intelligent and
rational character in the play, she is also prejudiced. However, this would
have been accepted as normal in Shakespeare's day.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b><span lang="EN-US">Scene 8</span></b><span lang="EN-US">: Racism and
concern for their friend color this conversation between Salerio and Solanio.
Solanio makes fun of Shylock by mimicking his cries for his daughter and his
money, and even remarks that the boys of Venice mimicked him as well. It is
clear that Solanio and Salerio believe that what bothers Shylock most about the
situation is the loss of his money, not his daughter. Because of this, both
characters know that Shylock will avenge himself upon Antonio if he can.
Salerio and Solanio also recount the parting of Antonio and Bassanio. In their
descriptions of the event, both note that Antonio loves Bassanio tremendously,
even so far as to "only love the world for him" (l. 50). Expecting
Antonio to be depressed once again, the two go off in order to cheer him up.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b><span lang="EN-US">Scene 9</span></b><span lang="EN-US">: It is now the
Prince of Aragon's turn to choose one of Portia's caskets. He immediately
disregards the gold one for the reasons discussed in scene 7. Aragon instead
chooses the silver casket, which is engraved with the words "Who chooseth
me shall get as much as he deserves." The problem with this casket is that
people too often assume that they deserve more than they actually do,
especially in cases of love, where intense feelings often override good
judgment. This is the case with Aragon, who believes that he deserves to be
rewarded with Portia's hand. His foolishness in believing that he deserves more
than he has received is reflected in the blinking idiot's picture found in the
casket. Aragon's mistake has provided Portia with the answer to the caskets,
which she can then "guide" the right suitor (Bassanio) toward.</span></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><font face="times" size="4">Act III, Scenes
1-5: Summary and Analysis<o:p></o:p></font></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><font face="times" size="4">Act III, Scene 1<o:p></o:p></font></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"><b><font face="times" size="4">New Character:<o:p></o:p></font></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Tubal: <span style="font-weight: normal;">a Jewish
friend of Shylock</span><o:p></o:p></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><font face="times" size="4">Summary:<o:p></o:p></font></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">In Venice,
Salerio and Solanio discuss Antonio’s financial state. Salerio has received
confirmation that one of Antonio’s merchant vessels was wrecked in the English
channel. As the two lament this ill news, Shylock enters. He is bitter with
both men for their knowledge of Jessica’s elopement before the fact, but they
simply mock him in return. The conversation turns to Antonio, on whom Shylock
is intent on wreaking his revenge according to the terms of the bond. Salerio
asks Shylock what good a pound of Antonio’s flesh will do him, but Shylock
dismisses this line of questioning as irrelevant. He is after vengeance, not
reimbursement.<o:p></o:p></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"> </font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Salerio and
Solanio learn from a messenger that Antonio awaits them at his house. As they
leave, a friend of Shylock’s, Tubal, arrives with news concerning both Jessica
and Antonio. In Genoa, Tubal learned that another of Antonio’s ships was lost
coming away from Tripoli. Shylock rejoices at the news, but this is soon tempered
by the knowledge that Jessica has been frivolously spending his money. He is
dismayed to find that she has traded (for a monkey) a ring given him by his
wife, but Tubal comforts him by reminding him of Antonio’s bad luck. Shylock
asks Tubal to arrange to have an officer arrest Antonio, and they part, making plans
to meet later at their synagogue.<o:p></o:p></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><font face="times" size="4"> </font></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><font face="times" size="4">Analysis:<o:p></o:p></font></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span lang="EN-US"><font face="times" size="4">
</font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">The plot
thickens for Antonio, threatening to make him a pound thinner. Not one, but
two, of his ships, the audience learns, have come to ruin, throwing his
finances into chaos and bankruptcy. Shylock already feels he has grounds to
detain the merchant, in order to insure his adherence to the terms of their
bond. The next time Antonio appears on stage (Act III, Scene 3), he will be in
the custody of a jailer. As is the case in most scenes in which he appears,
however, Shylock steals the show here. He utters one of the most famous
speeches of the play, if not of Shakespeare generally, the “Hath not a Jew
eyes?” monologue (lines 55-69). This speech may initially strike a reader or
audience member as an eloquent plea for racial and religious harmony, climaxing
in the dramatic lines, “If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do
we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die?” (lines 61-63). There is,
however, a sinister undercurrent running throughout the speech; Shylock follows
the above lines with “And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge?” (line 63). In this line, the plea for harmony explicitly spills over into the harsher “eye-for-an-eye” sentiments of Mosaic Law. Keep in mind that the tension in this speech is between its forceful eloquence and its purpose as a justification for performing brutal violence against Antonio. The skilled talkers in Shakespeare’s plays—be they as silly as Polonius in Hamlet or as repulsive as Caliban in The Tempest—always command an audience’s attention and consideration. One must acknowledge a certain righteousness in Shylock’s position. He has been abused at the hands of the Christians before, and now he has just cause to suspect Antonio’s complicity in his daughter’s flight. One interesting detail which perhaps does more than any other to humanize Shylock and enlist audience sympathy is his grief over the loss of a ring given him by his wife (whose absence from Shylock’s household throughout the play may indicate that he is a widower). Shylock’s outrage over his daughter’s theft moves from the economic to the personal, as he wouldn’t have parted with this item for any price. The audience may be more perplexed than ever at the end of this scene, as both Shylock’s venom and his humanity increase.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Act III, Scene 2</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Summary</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Act III, Scene 2 contains the first major climactic moment in the play, as one of its two main plots—Bassanio’s quest for Portia and the challenge of the three caskets—comes to a resolution. The scene opens with Bassanio and his attendants at Portia’s house in Belmont. For the first time in The Merchant of Venice, Portia exhibits enthusiasm for her potential suitor. She bids Bassanio to delay his choice, so that, in the event of his failure, they will still have had a chance to spend time together. Bassanio refuses, however, impatient to get the trial over with. Portia makes a speech praising him and wishing him success. A song is sung while Bassanio deliberates in silence.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">After the song, Bassanio reasons aloud over the caskets. Unlike his predecessors, Bassanio primarily concentrates on the material of the caskets rather than the descriptions. Distrusting the lure of appearance, he chooses the leaden one, which contains a picture of Portia and a congratulatory note. Bassanio kisses Portia, according to the instructions. Portia proclaims her unworthiness, before giving herself and all of her possessions over to Bassanio. She offers him a ring, with the proviso that if he take it from his finger or lose it, he indicates the end of his love for her. Bassanio swears to keep the ring, till death do them part. </font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">In the mirth which ensues, Gratiano suddenly reveals that he and Nerissa are to be wed and receives permission to do so at Bassanio’s and Portia’s wedding. At that moment, Salerio arrives from Venice, accompanied by the fugitives, Jessica and Lorenzo. Salerio delivers a letter from Antonio to Bassanio. As Bassanio reads, Portia observes that he loses his gaiety, and she demands to know the message. Bassanio reveals to her his indebtedness to Antonio and the fact that all of the latter’s ventures at sea have failed. Salerio informs his friends of Shylock’s absolute refusal to settle for anything less than the terms of his bond (i.e., the pound of Antonio’s flesh).</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Perceiving the closeness between her future husband and his friend, Portia offers to pay the debt to Shylock twelve times over. All she requests is that Bassanio marry her before setting out. When she discovers that Antonio’s life is at stake and that he begs to see Bassanio one last time before dying, however, Portia dispatches Bassanio immediately. He promises to return as soon as possible.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Analysis:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Act III, Scene 2 is one of the longest and most important scenes in the entire play. Its primary purpose is to show how Bassanio solves the riddle of the caskets and win Portia. Beyond that, it sets up or continues the other storylines which will lead to the resolution of the pound of flesh plot.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">The first item of significance in the scene is the fact of Portia’s enthusiasm for Bassanio’s attempt to win her hand. This is unprecedented in the play and, true to the spirit of comedy, Portia obtains her choice even though the terms of her father’s will allow her no choice.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">The next major aspect of the scene is Bassanio’s solution to the challenge of the caskets. He announces his logic at the very beginning of his attempt: “So may the outward shows be least themselves;/ The world is still deceived with ornament” (lines 73-4). In other words, he knows the lure of the surface may be ¬misleading and refuses to be taken in by mere appearances. Interestingly, Bassanio eschews the inscriptions of the caskets entirely and this, the audience might feel, is wise. Already we have seen how the same words can be bent to virtually opposite ends. Although it could be argued that the legend on the gold casket is misleading, the silver and lead caskets’ inscriptions could easily be read as invitations or as warnings. This is not to say that Bassanio avoids linguistic matters entirely; far from it. He instead balances his distrust of appearances against the cultural significance of all three metals. By his rationale, the least worthy casket by outward appearances—lead, a metal of no cultural worth—becomes the correct choice. And so it is. Bassanio’s future marriage to Portia guarantees him financial security and the wherewithal to pay his debts to Antonio. This, we might recall, was ostensibly his motive for seeking Portia’s hand in the first place, though it appears that he and Portia, at this point in the play, are genuinely in love. Paying off Antonio becomes a largely irrelevant concern, in any case. Portia seems to have more money than she knows what to do with; Antonio discharges his friend from his debts as long as Bassanio returns to Venice before his execution; Shylock will never collect on his 3,000 ducat loan in skin or cash. After all these complications, the audience may feel, Bassanio and Portia had better be in love!</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">As one plot is resolved, another more minor plot is introduced in the form of the ring Portia gives Bassanio to seal their love. Portia ends up generating the remaining portion of the play beyond Act IV, Scene 1 with her mischievous shenanigans involving the ring. Otherwise the play would end after Act IV, Scene 1, once the pound of flesh plot is concluded. The reason for this extra plot perhaps stems from a desire on Shakespeare’s part to thicken the mix of his play with some pure comedy. Though the threat against Antonio’s life ends happily, it may have been deemed too grim a scenario to end the comedy on.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Act III, Scene 3</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>New Character</b>:</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>The Jailer:<span> </span></b> holds Antonio on Shylock’s behalf</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Summary</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Meanwhile, back in Venice, Shylock encounters Antonio on the streets, albeit in the custody of the Jailer hired to guard him and accompanied by Solanio. Antonio begs a word with the usurer, but Shylock won’t even listen to him. “I’ll have no speaking; I will have my bond” (line 17) he cries before departing. Solanio tries to encourage Antonio, saying the Duke will not permit the fulfilling of the bond, but Antonio is resigned to his death. He knows it is important to law and order (as well as the economy) in Venice that the Duke uphold Shylock’s legal right to have his bond fulfilled. Antonio seems to have reconciled himself to his impending doom, so long as Bassanio returns to Venice to see him one last time.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Analysis:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">For the most part, this scene serves to put us back in touch with Venice after the previous long scene in Belmont, to assure the audience that things are indeed going as badly as Bassanio and company think they are. Aside from this, it advances the image of an unyielding, bitter Shylock and a melancholy, resigned merchant of Venice. Antonio’s last lines are interesting, however: “Pray God Bassanio come/ To see me pay his debt, and then I care not!” (lines 35-6). After his magnanimous, even passionate displays towards Bassanio, these lines ring with an almost spiteful bitterness. Perhaps there is some sexual jealousy on Antonio’s part, the way he recalls Bassanio from his future bride’s side in order to tell him, “I would die for you.”</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><br /></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Act III, Scene 4</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>New Character:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Balthasar:<span> </span></b> a servant of Portia.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><br /></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Summary:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Portia begins this scene in discussion with Lorenzo, during which she commits the management of her household to his and Jessica’s hands. She informs him that she and Nerissa are going to a monastery to pray until her husband comes home. After Jessica and Lorenzo exit, however, Portia instructs her servant Balthasar to deliver a letter to her cousin Dr. Bellario (a lawyer) and bring whatever clothes and instructions he offers to the ferry, where she will be waiting. He goes, and Portia informs Nerissa that they are to travel to Venice disguised as men, for purposes she will explain shortly.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><br /></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Analysis:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">From this point in the play onward, Portia takes a central and commanding role. It’s as if, freed from the strictures of her father’s will after Bassanio’s triumph, Portia now seeks to make up for lost time by solving Antonio’s dilemma. Not only is she convinced of Antonio’s worth on the basis of his friendship with Bassanio (as she informs Lorenzo), but also, one might speculate, she feels indebted to him for enabling his friend’s trip to Belmont.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Portia acknowledges the fact that being a woman has kept her sidelined from the action thus far, in a speech which the Elizabethan audience probably would have found humorous, but which more liberal-minded audiences today would no doubt receive with more sympathy. The play is fraught with images of women’s servitude, and their problematic positions as second-class citizens. Clearly, Portia is submissive to her father even after his death, and her wealth and power are transferred to her husband immediately following her marriage. It is important to note that these constraints are placed upon and accepted by the most powerful woman in the play. In even more subtle terms, as the couples pair off in Act III, Scene 2, they wager about who will be the first to have a male child, underscoring the desirability of males over females to the Elizabethans. In an exercise of what little power she has, Portia camps it up with some swagger at the expense of the men in her society, poking fun at their self-aggrandizing bluster and making bawdy references to their anatomy. What Portia and Nerissa are about to do, as the audience will learn shortly (in Act IV, Scene 1), is disguise themselves as a lawyer and his clerk, in order to arbitrate the bond between Antonio and Shylock, in another subtle way showing that in order to move in the Venetian circles of power, they must disguise their gender.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><br /></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Act III, Scene 5</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Summary:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Launcelot teases Jessica about her genealogy, claiming that being a Jew, she is damned. On the subject of genealogy, Lorenzo walks in and announces that Launcelot has gotten “the Moor” (i.e., a black woman) pregnant. Launcelot and Lorenzo match wits good-naturedly for a time, before the former departs. Lorenzo and Jessica flirt for a few lines before departing for dinner.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><br /></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Analysis:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">This is a gratuitous scene, thrown in solely for laughs rather than plot. It does, however, flirt comically with two of the play’s themes. Jessica’s Jewish ancestry is mocked here, although in a purely light-hearted way. It seems that suddenly, no one takes Jessica’s ethnicity seriously anymore, which is quite a reversal from previous scenes. Keep in mind that, even for Lorenzo—who is in love with Jessica—the issue of her race at one point threatened to outweigh any of her particular behavioral characteristics.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Also invoked here is the trouble with words, which previously had manifested itself in relation to the challenge of the three caskets. Lorenzo, exasperated with the linguistic displays of Launcelot, laments “How every fool can play upon the word!” (line 43). Lorenzo’s plea to Launcelot—”I pray thee understand a plain man in his plain meaning” (line 57)—is a humorous and perhaps nostalgic wish for language to be fixed in its meaning and not available to multiple interpretations. </font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Act III Commentary:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Scene 1: Act III is typically the turning point of Shakespeare's plays, and this play is no exception. Scene 1 is the turning point in the Antonio-Shylock plot. The first part of the scene is an exchange of insults between Salerio, Solanio, and Shylock. Salerio and Solanio, like Antonio, feel no need to spare Shylock's feelings over the loss of his daughter and part of his fortune, and take the opportunity to tease Shylock over his misfortunes.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">This is typical treatment for Shylock in the Venetian business world because of his religion. Shylock bemoans this treatment in one of the famous speeches from this play:</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">"Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands,</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions?—fed</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">to the same diseases, healed by the same means...</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">If you prick us, do we not bleed? And</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">If you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like you</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">In the rest, we will resemble you in that" (ll. 51-59).</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Shylock expounds the hypocrisy of the Christian treatment of Jews, who are just as human despite being of a different faith. Salerio and Solanio's reminder to Shylock of Antonio's misfortunes at sea provide Shylock with the means of revenge for the ill treatment that he has suffered in the name of his religion. Shylock is not, however, completely sympathetic in this scene. Upon receiving the report from Tubal about Jessica, Shylock fervently wished that his daughter were dead instead of spending his money. Although the loss of his daughter appears to hurt Shylock, it is clear in this scene that the loss of his jewels and money bothers him more. Enraged at the report and sustained by Tubal's news of Antonio's last ship becoming shipwrecked near Tripoli, Shylock chooses to arrest Antonio and exact his forfeiture as his revenge for his losses.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Scene 2: This scene is the turning point in the Portia-Bassanio plot of the play. Having spent time with</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Bassanio, Portia, who is now in love with him, begs him to delay his choice so that she may spend more time with him. Bassanio, however, lives "upon the rack" in a state of impatience, partially because he is in love with Portia and longs to have the matter resolved once and for all, but also because he knows he must repayAntonio as quickly as possible.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">During Bassanio's examination of the caskets, Portia provides her lover with a vital clue to the correct box through the song. The song's meaning indicates that love should not be an issue of appealing to the senses, but something internal. While this may have been good enough to provide Bassanio with the correct answer, Portia gives him more direct clues through the sounds of the song. The first two lines of the song, which end in "bred" and "head," both rhyme with "lead," which is the correct casket. The mention of the bell in the last line is also meant to recall the idea of lead, which is what bells are made of. This line is repeated in order to reinforce the idea of lead.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Bassanio does indeed choose the lead box, as he determines that appearances or empty promises should not fool him. The lead box, which threatens that "He who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath," is the definition of true love. Love is the willingness to sacrifice oneself for someone else, without the expectation of a reward. Bassanio has learned this lesson twice in the play, not only from Portia's song, but from the actions of Antonio as well. Bassanio lays claim to his nervous love, who then gives him a ring. Portia then exacts a promise from Bassanio that he will never lose the ring, unless he intends to signal the end of their love. This promise will become important at the end of Act IV.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Scene 3: Antonio's arrest in this scene displays more of both his and Shylock's characters. Although Antonio attempts to speak to Shylock, Shylock refuses to hear any of what Antonio has to say. Shylock's excuses for this are that he has sworn an oath on the Sabbath to have the bond, and that, since Antonio has always referred to him as a dog, he will simply fulfill Antonio's expectations. During this exchange, Shakespeare creates a link between Christianity and mercy. The suggestion here is that if Shylock had been Christian, he would have had mercy on Antonio. Since he is not, he will not "yield to Christian intercessors" (ll. 15-16).</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Antonio's character is further developed in this short scene as well. Antonio first assumes that the only reason Shylock insists on the bond is that Antonio has hurt him financially in the past. He does not see that his treatment of Shylock influences Shylock's motives in any way. Antonio also gives up on the idea of living in this scene, and allows his depression and resignation to take over. It is Antonio's friends (especially Portia) who save him, as he will do nothing to save himself.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Scene 4: Portia and Nerissa choose to assist in the problems of Antonio in this scene. Like Jessica in Act II, they will both cross dress in order to accomplish what they desire, but unlike Jessica, Portia and Nerissa are not in the least embarrassed about it. Portia especially chooses to put herself at risk in order to help the person who has helped her fiancé.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Scene 5: After all of the seriousness of the Antonio-Shylock plot, Shakespeare arranges for more comic relief in this scene. Launcelot teases Jessica by insisting that she is damned for the sins of her parents, especially her father. While he is most certainly joking, Launcelot's comments are typical of the Elizabethan attitude toward non-Christians. However, Jessica has become Christian by marrying Lorenzo, which is a vast "improvement," although it will raise the price of pork.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">There is also a small hint of the issue of racism in this scene. Lorenzo informs Launcelot that one of the servants, a Moor (African), is pregnant with Launcelot's child. Instead of being concerned, Launcelot laughs and jokes about the situation. The intimation here is that he need not take the Moor's pregnancy seriously because she is African.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><br /></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><br /></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Act IV, Scenes 1-2: Summary and Analysis</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Act IV, Scene 1</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>New Characterof the scene:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>The Duke of Venice:<span> </span></b> highest authority in Venice</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><br /></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Summary:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Bassanio and his attendants are back in Venice and wait with Antonio in the presence of the Duke to discover the fate of the merchant of Venice. Shylock enters the court, and the Duke makes a personal appeal to him to not only spare Antonio’s life but also, in light of the merchant’s recent losses at sea, to reduce the amount of the debt. But Shylock will have none of it, demanding that the bond be executed. When questioned on his motives, Shylock responds that he simply hates Antonio and is not obliged to have any particular justification.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Bassanio offers Shylock twice the amount of Antonio’s debt, but the latter remains firm. Shylock reminds the Duke that it is necessary to uphold the law in order to maintain Venice’s good standing in international trade. The Duke declares that he will make no decision until he hears from Bellario of Padua, who he has asked to come decide the matter. Nerissa enters, dressed in men’s clothes, posing as a messenger from Bellario. She gives the Duke a letter, which he reads while Gratiano and Shylock bicker. The Duke reveals that the letter recommends a young doctor (lawyer) to the Venetians to help decide the case. The Duke sends for the man while the letter is read to the court.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">This “man” is actually Portia, disguised as a lawyer. She questions Shylock and Antonio on the particularities of their case, and asks Shylock if he would be merciful. He refuses, of course. Bassanio, offering to pay the debt twice over, asks the disguised Portia if they might bend the law in this particular case. Much to Shylock’s delight, however, she declares this cannot be, for it would set a dangerous legal precedent in Venetian law. Portia asks Shylock if he’ll take three times the amount of the debt and spare Antonio’s life, but he refuses to budge. She decrees that the bond must be adhered to. Antonio thus steels himself for death. Before Shylock can start slicing away, however, Portia points out that although he is perfectly entitled to Antonio’s flesh, he has no claim to spill any of the merchant’s blood. Moreover, should he do so, his “land and goods/ Are by the laws of Venice confiscate/ Unto the state of Venice” (ll. 309-311). Shylock is dismayed by this news and seeing no way to obtain Antonio’s flesh without bloodshed, asks for the money instead. Portia prevents Bassanio from handing over the money, however, insisting that justice must be served. She points out, however, that Shylock will be subject to execution if he takes more or less than a pound of flesh.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Realizing that his sinister jig is up, Shylock attempts to slink away with only the original 3,000 ducats. Portia won’t allow this, however, as he has already “refused it in open court.” Shylock sees he is trapped and is prepared to leave court empty-handed. But Portia produces another law, decreeing that if any foreigner “by direct or indirect attempts/ …seek[s] the life of a citizen,” he loses half his goods to the citizen, the other half to the state, and his “life lies in the mercy/ Of the Duke…” The Christians take great delight in this, and the Duke spares Shylock’s life though confiscates his wealth.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Embittered, Shylock asks that he be killed, as he cannot sustain himself without his goods. Antonio intercedes, however, and asks the Duke to pardon the state’s portion of the fine, in exchange for the following conditions: Antonio must receive half of Shylock’s goods to use in trust for Lorenzo and Jessica; Shylock must become a Christian; and he must will all his possessions upon his death to Jessica and Lorenzo. The Duke agrees to this arrangement, as does Shylock, who has little choice. Shylock then pleads illness and hobbles away from the scene a broken man. </font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">The Duke requests that Portia dine with him, but she begs off, claiming she must return to Padua. The Duke leaves. Bassanio and Antonio offer to pay the disguised Portia the 3,000 ducats earmarked for Shylock, but she refuses, claiming satisfaction in justice. Bassanio presses, so Portia asks for his gloves, which he gives her, and his ring, which he holds back. He pleads first the ring’s worthlessness, and then his sentimental attachment to it. Portia scorns him in pretended outrage, and she and Nerissa depart. Antonio then persuades Bassanio to let the lawyer have he ring, for the service “he” rendered. Bassanio relents and sends Gratiano with his ring to find the pair.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Analysis:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">This scene marks the resolution of the second major plot complication of The Merchant of Venice, namely the pound of flesh scenario. There doesn’t seem much point in denying that the play climaxes with this particular scene, and that the remaining scenes constitute little more than some good-natured dénouement. It is also the last scene of which Shylock is part, and so central is he deemed to the play that several productions have ended here, omitting the rest altogether. This is perhaps appropriate, for with Shylock go all the issues which have been preoccupying the audience for the length of the play. The sole remaining concern is the subplot of the rings, which was only introduced into the plot in the preceding scene and is quite extraneous to the major business on stage.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Shylock enters the scene well past the point of reconciliation; he wants Antonio dead, and will accept no amount of money in exchange for foregoing the terms of his bond. The issue of Jewishness comes to a head at this point, as the Christians attribute Shylock’s stubbornness to an inbred racial/religious sensibility. Antonio even asks his friends not to try to change Shylock’s mind, for, he feels, “You may as well forbid the mountain pines/ To wag their high tops and to make no noise/ When they are fretten with the gusts of heaven;/ You may as well do any thing most hard/ As seek to soften…/ His Jewish heart” (lines 75-80). Shylock’s rigidity is seen to stem from his constitution. The usurer himself, however, belies this claim, for, we may recall from Act III, Scene 1, Shylock insists he learned this behavior from “Christian example.”</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">The Christian animosity towards Shylock’s Jewishness is made most apparent, however, in the terms of Shylock’s punishment. The most conspicuous of Antonio’s three conditions for Shylock is the demand that he must convert to Christianity. Some stage productions of The Merchant have given a great deal of weight to this detail, representing it as the crushing blow to the usurer. This is a convincing interpretation, insofar as Shylock appears to take his religion very seriously throughout the play. Moreover, shortly after the demand has been made and agreed to, Shylock must leave the court, pleading illness. It’s as if the idea of conversion is physically repugnant to him. Given his treatment at the hands of the Christians, it may very well be.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">An issue somewhat related to these religious matters is the traditional opposition between the letter and the spirit of the law. Some critics have suggested that the dispute between the Christians and Shylock boils down to the latter’s stubborn insistence on formally codified laws as opposed to the spirit in which such laws were written. They further insist that this trait is in keeping with the Elizabethan conception of Jews as cold-hearted exploiters of legal language, a sensibility expressed today in the stereotypes of the lawyer as a shrewd manipulator of language against truth and justice, and as typically Jewish. This binary opposition between Jew/letter and Christian/spirit seems forced, however, when held against the background of Act IV, Scene 1.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">The Christians, especially Portia, are brutally clever manipulators of the law, as evinced through their juxtaposing of various laws to transform Shylock from a violated creditor waiting to receive his due, to an impoverished supplicant of the Duke, suing for mercy. Portia proves particularly adept at pulling laws out of her assumed hat of “Doctor.” It is difficult to say how convincing an audience might find her reasoning that the bond doesn’t entitle Shylock to spill any of Antonio’s blood; one could argue that the bond doesn’t exclude it either, or that the idea of spilling blood is presumed in the idea of cutting off a pound of flesh. (The bond doesn’t specifically entitle Shylock to hold the knife with his hand, but it would be difficult to imagine arguing on such grounds.) In any case, it seems petty to fault Shylock for adhering to the letter of the law because, as a Jew in a Christian society, what else does he have to protect him? The “spirit” in Venice is not very friendly to him. The Christians clearly don’t want Shylock to have his way and continue to maneuver until they succeed at circumventing his legal claims, however brutal.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">The theme of Antonio’s possible homosexual love for Bassanio perhaps attains its loudest crescendo here. The morbidity and melancholy which Antonio has from time to time exhibited throughout the play reaches new depths, as throughout the scene he demonstrates a peculiar willingness to die. This eagerness might be accounted for if, as Solanio insists in Act II, Scene 8, Antonio “only loves the world” for Bassanio’s presence. Perhaps Antonio feels he has already lost his friend to the world of heterosexual love and would just as soon be killed by Shylock as not. As Antonio steels himself for slaughter, he tells Bassanio, “Commend me to your honorable wife./ Tell her the process of Antonio’s end,/ Say how I loved you, speak me fair in death;/ and when the tale is told, bid her be judge/ Whether Bassanio had not once a love” (lines 272-6) In other words, Antonio suggests, no heterosexual relationship could supplant, replace, or even compare with the love he and Bassanio shared.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">The last item one might note about Act IV, Scene 1 is the continuance of the subplot of Portia’s ring. Upon Shylock’s quitting the court, there’s no particular reason for Portia and Nerissa to maintain their secret identities. But rather than reveal themselves, the women instead embark upon some gratuitous tomfoolery at the expense of their future husbands. Portia creates the new conflict out of thin air. It’s as if, freed from her father’s will and armed with a new sense of subjective agency, Portia is reluctant to relinquish her new-found power. Perhaps she is sowing her wild oats, given that, according to the custom of the time, all of Portia’s property and possessions will become Bassanio’s upon their marriage, and he will be her lord and master. Rather than go directly from one guardian to another, Portia wishes to prolong her freedom and express herself through her own action. This is offset, however, by the fact that her action remains hidden by her disguise, and at its boldest, remains all in fun; she offers no challenge to this social order, especially in light of the fact that her actions are, in the end, a service to her husband. It should be noted, finally, that Bassanio initially passes Portia’s test of his devotion by refusing to part with the ring. But rather than reveal herself then, she storms off in pretended anger, giving Bassanio time to cave in. Portia is determined to have her fun, it seems.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><br /></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Act IV, Scene 2</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Summary:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Gratiano overtakes Portia and Nerissa as they seek Shylock’s house in order to have the usurer sign the deed willing his properties to Lorenzo. Gratiano offers Portia the ring and an invitation to dinner. She accepts the former and declines the latter. Nerissa, meanwhile, determines to lure Gratiano into the same trap Portia laid for Bassanio, and sets off with Gratiano, ostensibly in search of Shylock’s house, in order to obtain her future husband’s ring.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Analysis:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">This scene simply serves to advance the ring plot by giving Portia the chance to obtain Bassanio’s ring and allowing Nerissa the same opportunity with Gratiano, in order to complete the comic symmetry. </font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Act IV Commentary:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Scene 1: This is the climax of the play. Although every character in the room, except Antonio, attempts to persuade Shylock to be merciful, the treatment of Shylock is no better than it has been throughout the entire play. Gratiano constantly insults him, Bassanio criticizes him, the Duke constantly refers to him as "Jew," and even Antonio, who needs Shylock's mercy, calls him hard-hearted. In fact, the only character in the scene that treats Shylock in a respectful manner is Portia.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Respectful or not, Shylock is determined to have his bond. When Shylock explains why, he merely says that it is what he desires because he does not like Antonio and the law is on his side. He has no other reason for demanding the pound of flesh, nor does he feel that he needs further justification. When the duke asks him how he dares to expect mercy when he gives none, Shylock's response is that he has done nothing wrong:</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">"What judgment shall I dread, doing no wrong?...</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">The pound of flesh which I demand of him</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Is dearly bought, is mine, and I will have it" (ll. 89, 99-100).</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Shylock's argument, then, is that he has the law on his side, and he does not need to concern himself with issues of morality or the true nature of justice. Shylock's error here is that he insists on the law as words, but not intent. He also rejects the notion of mercy, which will become problematic for him later on in the scene. When Portia determines that the only way out of the bond is for Shylock to be merciful, she delivers another of Shakespeare's famous speeches. Shylock asks why he must be merciful, and Portia replies that mercy cannot be compelled, but must be given freely, as it is given freely by kings and by God because it is a royal attribute. Portia also points out that although Shylock asks for justice, he should consider that if God only considered justice and not mercy, no one would ever be saved. Because of this, we should show mercy as well. However, Shylock is bent upon revenge, and refuses to hear Portia's arguments.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Without the mercy of Shylock, Portia must find a legal way to help Antonio out of his predicament. When Bassanio begs her "to do a great right" in releasing Antonio by doing "a little wrong" by bending the law, Portia refuses because it will set a precedent that could destroy the Venetian legal system. She then carefully examines the bond, and stalls by allowing Antonio to say farewell to his friend. This gives Portia time to notice that the bond does not mention blood (although Shylock intended to have blood along with the flesh), nor does it allow for more or less than one pound of flesh. Because Shylock insists on the letter of the law, Portia insists upon it as well, and Shylock is incapable of exacting his penalty because he cannot do so without taking blood or cutting exactly one pound. Then, in accordance with the law, Portia informs Shylock that any alien seeking the life of a citizen loses all of his possessions and his life is forfeit. Thus Portia's warning about being merciful for the sake of needing mercy comes true, and it is Shylock who requires mercy by the end of the scene. </font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">The last section of the scene might be viewed as Portia's revenge for a comment Bassanio makes about her. When Antonio makes his farewell speech to Bassanio, Bassanio states that he would sacrifice Portia in order to save Antonio, clearly showing that his affections for Antonio are stronger than those for his wife. Portia, as the judge, asks for the ring she gave Bassanio in Act III, scene 2 as a reward for helping his friend. This is a test of Bassanio's love for Portia, and he fails it by giving up the ring at Antonio's behest. Portia will use the ring to teach Bassanio a valuable lesson about love in Act V.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Scene 2: While Portia finishes the final paperwork for the case, Nerissa decides that she will test her husband, Gratiano, by attempting to gain his ring from him, which he promised to keep just as Bassanio had done.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">During the previous scene, Gratiano expressed a wish that his wife were dead so that she could ask God to help Antonio—a comment that Nerissa did not appreciate. Nerissa decides to join in on Portia's, and does succeed in obtaining Gratiano's ring. The last section of the scene might be viewed as Portia's revenge for a comment Bassanio makes about her.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><font face="times" size="4"><br /></font></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Act V, Scene I: Summary and Analysis</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>New Characterof the Scene:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Stephano:<span> </span></b> a messenger.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><br /></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Summary:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Lorenzo and Jessica are in the garden in front of Portia’s house in Belmont, whispering sweet nothings in each other’s ears. Stephano, a messenger, enters and announces that Portia will soon return. Launcelot Gobbo arrives and makes the same announcement with respect to Bassanio. Lorenzo dispatches Stephano to ready the household for Portia’s return. Lorenzo babbles for a time about the moon and music.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Portia and Nerissa enter and encounter the two mooning lovers, who welcome them home. Portia orders that no one in her household mention her and Nerissa’s absence. Bassanio, Antonio, Gratiano, and their followers arrive. Portia welcomes them home to Belmont and is introduced to Antonio.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">The company notice Gratiano and Nerissa quarreling. Portia inquires why, and it is revealed that Gratiano gave away the ring Nerissa had given him, which he promised never to remove from his hand. Portia chastises Gratiano, claiming that her betrothed, Bassanio, would never do such a thing. Gratiano reveals that Bassanio too gave his ring away and pleads that they both sacrificed their rings to the judge and clerk, who would take no other payment. Portia and Nerissa feign disbelief, insisting the men must have given the rings away during some tawdry sexual encounter and vowing never to sleep with their future husbands until the rings are recovered.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Antonio attempts to intercede on his friends’ behalf, promising that never again will Bassanio break his oath. To seal the bargain, Portia produces a ring, which turns out to be the same as the one she gave him in the first place. She claims to have recovered it by sleeping with the doctor. Nerissa also insists that she regained her ring from the clerk using a similar method. Having thoroughly bewildered all parties concerned, Portia reveals that she and Nerissa were the doctor and the clerk. She also gives Antonio a letter, informing him that three of his ships have in fact returned and are laden with riches. Nerissa tells Lorenzo of Shylock’s new will, naming him heir of the usurer’s estate. There is general merriment, and the company goes inside Portia’s house.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Analysis:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Act V, Scene 1 is the final scene of the play, and its primary purpose seems to be to restore the comic mood threatened by Shylock’s attempt on Antonio’s life. The frivolous final subplot is resolved here; Portia reveals that she and Nerissa were the doctor and the clerk, and thus that Bassanio and Gratiano simply gave the rings back to their original owners. Clearing away any remaining ill residue from the previous scenes, Portia also reveals that some of Antonio’s ships have returned safe, thus restoring his previous good fortune as a businessman. The spirit of comedy wins the day.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Shakespeare’s primary agenda in this scene, as in so many, is a linguistic one; in other words, much of the dialogue here is aimed at displaying his wit and ingenuity, with a barrage of puns, double-entendres, and metaphors. Lorenzo’s sole purpose in this scene, for example, is to make long decorous speeches, which advance nothing in the play, save its poetry. In particular, Shakespeare milks the humorous potential in Portia’s and Nerissa’s secret activities for as many double meanings as possible. Nerissa’s accusation, that “The clerk will ne’er wear hair on’s face that had [the ring from Gratiano],” for example, has two main senses, one for most of the characters—i.e., Nerissa claims to suspect Gratiano of giving his ring not to a clerk but to another woman—and an extra one for Nerissa, Portia, and the audience—i.e., the clerk, who was actually Nerissa, therefore a woman, will indeed never grow a beard. The chief interest and delight in this scene, one might argue, is the sight of Bassanio and Gratiano squirming, while Portia and Nerissa rattle off string after string of accusations which the women know are both false and true, depending on how one interprets the words. This ties the last scene into the recurring theme of multiple interpretations of words which runs throughout the play. The difference here is that unlike the scenes involving the three caskets, in which much was at stake depending on how one reads the words in question, the final scene offers us this linguistic play for its own sake—just for laughs, as it were—in a spirit of comedy where several interpretations are available and no one—audience and cast alike—is obliged to settle on a single reading to the exclusion of all others. And such is perhaps the ultimate attraction of Shakespearean comedy.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><br /></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4"><b>Act V Commentary:</b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Scene 1: This final scene, which is often viewed as comic because of the resolution of the rings, begins with Jessica and Lorenzo, who appear to be in the middle of a disagreement. Jessica is upset and depressed, and claims that Lorenzo stole her soul with false vows. A messenger comes to temporarily disrupt this argument to notify Lorenzo of Bassanio's impending return. However, even when Lorenzo orders music, Jessica's spirits are still not lifted, and her last comment in the play is that she is not merry when she hears music. The last impression of Jessica, then, is one of depression and anger, which does not fit with the lightness of the rest of the scene.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font face="times" size="4">Once the other characters enter, the mood shifts. Bassanio arrives and introduces Portia to Antonio. The ring plot then comes to the surface when Nerissa and Gratiano fight over the loss of Nerissa's ring. Gratiano first attempts to dismiss the situation by calling the ring worthless and trite, but Nerissa dismisses that by reminding him that it is not the material value of the ring, but the emotional value, that is important. She then insists that a girl has it (which we know to be true). Portia then blames Gratiano for the quarrel, stating that she knows that her husband would never make the same mistake. Of course, Gratiano tells Portia that Bassanio has given up the ring, most likely to absolve himself of some of the blame. After some jokes about the ladies sleeping with the so-called "doctor" and "clerk," Bassanio and Gratiano learn their lesson and promise to properly value their wives. Antonio finds that his ships have come to harbor, and everyone, except the Jews of the play, have a happy ending.</font></p><br /><br />Important Questions and Answers: MOV<br /><br /> <br /><br />1. What evidence in The Merchant of Venice, Act 1, Scene 1 indicates Antonio is in love with Bassanio?<br /><br /> <br /><br />While the presence of an overt same-sex relationship would have been strictly taboo when The Merchant of Venice was written, the exchanges between Antonio and Bassanio can be interpreted as an exceptionally deep friendship, a fatherly love, or a charitable Christian love. However, modern adaptations of the play interpret Antonio's love for Bassanio as romantic based on the evidence present in the text: Once Salarino and Solanio have ruled out anxiety over his ships as a cause for Antonio's sad disposition, they have another suggestion: Solanio: Why then you are in love. Antonio: Fie, fie! The structure of these two lines is notable and appears deliberate in the printing. They are written in verse, and the placement of Antonio's response makes it an essential part of Solanio's line, which indicates the speed of Antonio's response. Solanio has barely finished speaking before Antonio refutes him. This could be read as the quick and emphatic response of a man with something to hide. It's subtle but telling that Bassanio arrives moments after Solanio suggests Antonio is in love. In his dialogue with Bassanio, Antonio makes no secret of loving Bassanio, but the timing here raises the possibility that Antonio is in love with Bassanio. Once they are in private, Antonio's first question to Bassanio is about the woman Bassanio has gone to see. The scene has established that Antonio has been preoccupied with something, and the speed of this initial question indicates it has been burning in Antonio's mind. Bassanio acknowledges Antonio's love in his response, saying "To you Antonio/I owe the most in money and in love." Antonio replies by assuring Bassanio that all he has is at Bassanio's disposal, and he later expresses offense when Bassanio implies there might be a limit to what Antonio would do for him. Antonio says, "And out of doubt you do me now more wrong/In making question of my uttermost/Than if you had made waste of all I have." Antonio has given freely to Bassanio and clearly values his own ability to provide for Bassanio's happiness over any of his material wealth.<br /><br /><a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/characters/#Antonio"> Antonio</a><a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/characters/#Bassanio"> Bassanio</a><a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/characters/#Solanio"> Solanio</a><a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/characters/#Salarino"> Salarino</a><a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/themes/#Worth"> Worth</a><a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/themes/#Appearance_versus_Reality"> Appearance versus Reality</a><a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/symbols/#Gold"> Gold</a><br /><br />2. How does Bassanio's description of Portia in Act 1, Scene 1 in The Merchant of Venice contrast with Lorenzo's words about Jessica in Act 2, Scene 6?<br /><br /> <br /><br />When Antonio asks Bassanio about the woman he went to see—meaning Portia—Bassanio does not immediately speak of her. Instead, he outlines his debts. When he does speak of Portia, he opens by saying, "In Belmont is a lady richly left,/And she is fair; and fairer than that word,/ Of wondrous virtues." He references her money first, her beauty second, and her "virtues" third. He never details what those virtues include. He does not mention any specific traits and goes on to describe the competition for her hand. A cynical interpretation of his response might assume he is primarily interested in her wealth, and the description is certainly not one of a man overcome by passion. In contrast, when Lorenzo goes to collect Jessica from her father's house in Act 2, Scene 6, he speaks of his love for her freely, with little prompting from his friend Gratiano: Beshrew me but I love her heartily, For she is wise, if I can judge of her, And fair she is, if that mine eyes be true, And true she is, as she hath proved herself. And therefore, like herself, wise, fair, and true, Shall she be placed in my constant soul. Lorenzo is specific about what he loves in Jessica. Only moments before, Jessica gave him a large chest filled with gold and jewels to take with them, but Lorenzo seems uninterested in this bounty. He is interested in her wisdom, her beauty, and her honesty. Most importantly—and obviously—Lorenzo says he loves Jessica, a word conspicuously absent from Bassanio's talk about Portia. Lorenzo concludes his speech by placing Jessica in his soul, while Bassanio concludes his description of Portia by saying if he is successful in wooing her "I should questionless be fortunate!" Bassanio's focus is on what he stands to gain by winning Portia, and the subject of his sentence is himself. Lorenzo's focus is on Jessica; she is the subject of his sentences as she is of his life. Based on these first impressions, Lorenzo's feelings for Jessica are clearly much deeper than Bassanio's for Portia.<br /><br /> <br /><br />3. How Gratiano is characterized in his speech in lines 84 to 110 in Act 1, Scene 1 of The Merchant of Venice?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Gratiano is a man unapologetic about his enthusiasm for living, and he has no desire to change. He says, With mirth and laughter let old wrinkles come And let my liver rather heat with wine Than let my heart cool with mortifying groans. He is happy to age and wear out his body with the trappings of merriment, laughter, and wine, than to allow himself to age and grow bitter and cold. If he jokes too much and too freely, he prefers his own approach to that of reputed wise men who remain silent and serious only because they would be called fools if they spoke. Perhaps others think Gratiano a fool as well, but if so, he has earned the reputation by his own merits and by being true to himself. He says all these things in an effort to bring Antonio out of his melancholy in Act 1 and tells Antonio he loves him because he is loyal to his friends and wants them to be as happy as he is.<br /><br />4. Based on what Portia says about her suitors in The Merchant of Venice, Act 1, Scene 2, what is she looking for in a husband?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Portia's description of her suitors indicates that her options are uniformly unappealing. She objects to the Neapolitan prince who does "nothing but talk of his horse." The County Palatine does "nothing but frown." She finds the French lord's moods too inconsistent, and she finds a Scottish lord too quarrelsome. She thinks the English baron, Falconbridge, is physically attractive, but they do not speak the same language, which makes a relationship impossible. Her greatest objection seems to be to her German suitor, who drinks profusely. She says of him, "When he is best he is a little worse than a man, and when he is worst he is little better than a beast ... I will do anything, Nerissa, ere I will be married to a sponge." Once Portia has made explicit what she finds unappealing about the men who pursue her, her requirements are not substantially different from what most people look for in a partner. She wants someone who is interesting to talk to and whom she can talk to. She wants a pleasant disposition and a reasonably predictable personality. Most importantly, she wants a husband who exhibits self-control, does not behave like a "beast," and can be trusted not to squander her fortune on drink.<br /><br />5. Based on their conversation in The Merchant of Venice, Act 1, Scene 2, what kind of friendship do Portia and Nerissa have?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Nerissa's title is "waiting-gentlewoman," which means she is technically Portia's servant. She is a high-ranking servant, but still an employee. However, the two women have a close and very open friendship. When Portia complains of being "aweary of this world," Nerissa reminds her of her great fortune. Portia wants for nothing, is beautiful, and has scores of admirers. Nerissa speaks frankly, even cheekily, to Portia. When Portia says Nerissa's sentences of advice are good, Nerissa says, "They would be better if followed." At the same time, Nerissa shows sympathy for Portia's complaint of having her dead father take away her right to choose her own husband and gently reassures Portia of her father's wisdom and goodness. She listens patiently to Portia's complaints about her suitors, which are valid, and encourages her with the memory of Bassanio saying he is "best deserving a fair lady." The friendship is one sided in the sense that this and other conversations between them center on Portia's needs, but Portia clearly values Nerissa as a grounding influence and a source of sensible feedback. In turn Nerissa clearly has her lady's best interests at heart. The relative equality between the two women is also visible in the structure of their dialogue, which is written in prose rather than verse. In Shakespearean plays prose is reserved for casual speech, and verse lines indicate formality and propriety.<br /><br />6. When introduced in The Merchant of Venice, Act 1, Scene 2, what does Portia's dead father's riddle, which will determine who marries Portia, indicate about the role of women?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Portia vows that she will follow her father's wishes in choosing a husband. The details of the challenge do not become clear until Act 2, Scene 7. In that scene the audience sees that Portia's father has created a kind of shell game to choose his daughter's husband from beyond the grave. He has set up three chests, each with an inscription that provides a clue, and the man who chooses the chest with Portia's portrait inside wins her hand. In Act 1, Scene 2 Portia is clearly frustrated by this arrangement. She laments, "I may neither choose who I would nor refuse who I dislike. So is the will of a living daughter curbed by the will of a dead father." Her father's written will has imposed his intentions on her. Of course, if her father were alive, social convention of the time would give him control over his daughter's marriage, but Portia might have had input on the decision. Under the system her father has devised, she lacks even the illusion that her opinion matters. In a time when arranged marriages were commonplace for the upper classes, this arrangement reads as an exaggerated parody of the lengths parents might go to find a daughter a "suitable" mate. All of Portia's suitors are men of high rank and wealth, but they are personally repellent. In this seeming game of chance, it appears she may be forced to marry any one of them, creating a socially acceptable but unhappy marriage.<br /><br />7. In what ways is Antonio's and Shylock's conflict over lending money with interest in The Merchant of Venice, Act 1, Scene 3 based in religious belief?<br /><br /> <br /><br />As common as the collection of interest, or usance, is when lending money today, the practice provides the basis for Antonio and Shylock's conflict. Antonio, as a Christian, is prohibited by his religion from charging interest on money he loans to others. This policy enrages Shylock because Antonio lending money for free drives down the interest rates he and his colleagues can charge on their loans. While Antonio may mean well, he directly affects Shylock's livelihood. As a Jew, Shylock is limited to moneylending for his income because his religious law allows him to charge interest, but the city's law prohibits him from owning land or engaging in many other professions. During their exchange in Act 1, Scene 3, Shylock attempts to explain why he believes it is acceptable for him to charge interest for the money he lends. He recounts the Biblical story of Jacob, who is charged with watching his uncle's flock of sheep. As payment, Jacob collects the multicolored lambs born during the year he cares for the flock, and he sets up multicolored branches in the females' line of sight during breeding time to attempt to influence the color of their offspring. The strategy works, and Jacob collects a large flock of his own. Shylock explains that Jacob's efforts to influence breeding and increase the flock is similar to the act of charging interest on money, so his own practices are justified by the religious text. Antonio rejects this viewpoint and argues Jacob is simply creating an advantage for himself in basic trade as a merchant might. Antonio whispers to Bassanio that the devil, Shylock, can cite scripture for his own purposes, rejecting Shylock's argument. Still, Antonio does not explain why his own interpretation of Jacob's strategy to increase his flock assigns Jacob more honor or honesty. The exchange demonstrates that business practices are not the only point of difference between Shylock and Antonio; they differ in their fundamental religious beliefs, which makes their conflict about something much deeper than money.<br /><br />8. Why is Shylock opposed to eating dinner with Bassanio and Antonio in The Merchant of Venice, Act 1, Scene 3?<br /><br /> <br /><br />When Bassanio asks Shylock to join him and Antonio for dinner, Shylock responds with sarcasm, saying, "Yes, to smell pork. To eat of the habitation which your prophet the Nazarite conjured the devil into." Although some of the dietary restrictions have been relaxed in modern times, at the time of the play, Jewish law requires Shylock to follow strict dietary standards. These standards are especially strict regarding meat: which animals may be consumed, how animals are killed, how the meat is stored. Based on Jewish law, pork is not allowed because pigs do not chew cud. Shylock's reference to "the Nazarite" alludes to a Biblical story in which Jesus of Nazareth performs an exorcism and casts demons out of a man's body and into a flock of pigs, which would have been acceptable because pigs were already considered unclean under Jewish law at the time. Shylock's use of this story indicates the depth of his own piety, as he refuses to even smell pork, let alone eat it. He also implies hypocrisy on the part of Christians, who freely eat pork even though their own scriptural stories imply pigs are tainted.<br /><br />9. How do Antonio's, Bassanio's, and Shylock's viewpoints differ toward the bond they seal in The Merchant of Venice, Act 1, Scene 3?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Shylock refers to the bond, which requires Antonio to give up a pound of his own flesh, as "merry sport." His expressions of hatred toward Antonio and his earlier aside wishing for an opportunity to get Antonio at his mercy and take revenge reveal that Shylock's talk of the bond as a joke are a cover for his true intentions. He knows taking a pound of Antonio's flesh will kill him, so his suggestion is rooted in malice, and his tone conceals that malice toward the Christian. Bassanio recognizes Shylock's malice for what it is. Even though Antonio expresses cynicism toward Shylock's justification of his work as a moneylender, countering Shylock's story of the Biblical Jacob by telling Bassanio the devil can use scripture to justify his own ends, he seems to abandon this cynicism when Shylock offers the terms of their loan. Bassanio, however, does not buy Shylock's friendly attitude. He cautions Antonio against accepting these terms and tries to back out of the deal. Antonio says he believes Shylock has shown such kindness that he may convert to Christianity, which shows a somewhat naive level of trust in a man who is asking for a pound of one's flesh. Shakespeare uses the word kindness to play with the three men's interpretations of the situation. Shylock tells Antonio he's not going to charge interest on his loan, saying, "This is kind I offer" and goes on to say, "This kindness will I show." It's likely he's thinking of repaying Antonio's many insults and injuries "in kind." Bassanio seems to understand this double meaning when he remarks, "This were kindness!" His use of the subjunctive "were" might refer to either meaning of the word. If the contract is made, if Antonio were to default, Shylock would get his payment in kind. On the other hand, if he were to repay the loan as agreed, Shylock's offer would have been a kind and generous one. Antonio himself, however, chooses to have faith and see "much kindness in the Jew."<br /><br />10. What elements of Shylock's portrayal create sympathy for his character in The Merchant of Venice, Act 1, Scene 3?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Shylock describes the wrongs Antonio has done him in lines 116 to 139. Antonio has scolded Shylock in public for his moneylending and called him "misbeliever" and "cutthroat dog." These public insults sew animosity, and Shylock points out that he has "borne it with a patient shrug." He does not retaliate by calling Antonio names—perhaps because Antonio has more power in Venetian society than Shylock does. Antonio has not limited his abuse to words; Shylock cites occasions when Antonio has kicked him and spat on his clothing. The phrasing he uses—"void your rheum upon my beard"—conjures an especially gross image of Antonio spitting a glob of phlegm very near Shylock's face. Spitting is an unsanitary and highly personal insult since it is an invasion of another person's space and hygiene to inflict ones bodily fluids on another in such a manner. When confronted with these wrongs, Antonio does not offer apology or conciliation of any kind. Social convention asks us to apologize when we become aware we have wronged another person. Christian morality, which Antonio follows, likewise asks people to seek forgiveness when they have done wrong. Antonio does not appear to believe he has done anything wrong, and instead of apology, he doubles down on his abuse saying, "I am as like to call thee so again,/To spet on thee again, to spurn thee, too." He asks Shylock to lend him the money not out of friendship but for business and the ability to collect interest from his enemy. Even though Shylock is plotting against Antonio as he dictates the terms of the loan, Antonio's lack of remorse for mistreating Shylock provides rationale for Shylock's desire for revenge.<br /><br />11. Why do Portia's suitors have to swear not to approach another woman in marriage if they lose her father's challenge in The Merchant of Venice?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Once the rules of the challenge Portia's father set up before his death are made clear, it becomes apparent that the challenge is not a simple game of chance. Each casket is inscribed with a clue that is designed to direct a worthy man to the box that holds Portia's portrait. Even though the element of chance is reduced in the challenge, if any man is allowed to accept the challenge and choose between the three caskets, it substantially raises the odds of an unworthy man undertaking the challenge on a whim and winning Portia's hand. To protect against this possibility, Portia's father has added the requirement that those who accept the challenge swear never to marry another woman even if they lose the challenge. Although it's unclear how such a provision might be enforced, this first hurdle limits the pool of suitors who are willing to risk a lifetime of loneliness for the mere chance to marry Portia, which at least ensures the winner will have a basic level of devotion to her.<br /><br />12. What does Launcelot Gobbo's and Old Gobbo's misuse of language indicate about each of them in The Merchant of Venice, Act 2, Scene 2?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Old Gobbo's misuse of words is more obvious than his son's. He tells Bassanio Launcelot has "an infection to serve" when he probably means an affection and later refers to the "defect of the matter" when he probably means effect. Lancelot hopes his father's words can "frutify" his intentions when he probably means fructify. The misused vocabulary appears for humorous effect in the play as the purpose of both Gobbo men is to provide comic relief. However, it also illustrates their lack of education and finesse. These are lower-class men than Bassanio. They are poorer than Shylock and less learned than he, but in Venetian society they have greater freedom and status than Shylock has. Their judgment of Shylock and distaste for him may illustrate how, despite their low rank, they recognize his defects as an employer. Thus, it highlights the flaws of a social system that bases status on race and religion instead of merit and illustrates how such a system perpetuates prejudice and mutual hostility.<br /><br /> <br /><br />13. What passages in The Merchant of Venice, Act 2, Scenes 3 and 4 raise the possibility that the Christians dislike Shylock on his own merits rather than blind prejudice?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Act 2, Scenes 3 and 4 feature Shylock's daughter Jessica. She is a Jew like her father, but she is not subject to the same hostility her father faces. It is possible that Jessica enjoys greater favor with the other characters because she is a woman or because she plans to marry a Christian and convert. However, marriages between Christians and Jews were not encouraged and were often considered taboo in Christian society. It is more likely that Jessica is not subject to the same scorn Shylock faces because she is a nicer person than he is. Shylock is angry and bitter from years of mistreatment, and he makes no secret of returning the scorn he has faced. Jessica, on the other hand, is friendly toward Launcelot and others. Launcelot calls her "most beautiful pagan, most sweet Jew" because she has treated him well during his time with her family. Lorenzo says "If e'er the Jew her father come to heaven,/It will be for his gentle daughter's sake." Lorenzo is in love with Jessica, so he is biased in her favor, but his statement also speaks to her traits that earned his love.<br /><br />14. How does Act 2, Scene 5 of The Merchant of Venice illustrate Jessica's reasons for wanting to elope with Lorenzo?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Shylock is extremely protective of Jessica, which isolates her from even the most casual social contact. He is driven by his prejudice against the Venetians. As a young woman living in a vibrant city, she is undoubtedly interested in the things happening around her, but Shylock tells her to keep the windows of their house locked and not to look outside. She is not to even allow the sounds of the outside world into their home or her ears, lest they corrupt her. Shylock does not know about her involvement with Lorenzo, of course, but neither has he taken any steps to arrange for her to have a Jewish suitor even though she is of an appropriate age for marriage. Had he done so, he might have prevented her from eloping with a Christian. There is no evidence in the play that she has any friends within her own community either, another factor that may have led her to pursue a clandestine relationship with a Christian. Her only friend appears to be the house servant Launcelot Gobbo. However, Shylock has alienated Launcelot and driven him to find another job, which means if Jessica continues living with her father, she will be even more isolated than before. If the alternative is marriage and becoming part of Lorenzo's social circle, her choice seems easy and obvious.<br /><br />15. In The Merchant of Venice how are Jessica and Portia similar?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Jessica and Portia are both women controlled by their father's wishes. Portia complains that her father has taken any element of choice from her as she attempts to find a husband using the complicated challenge her father has left behind, which essentially allows him to choose a husband for her from the grave. Her position in Belmont leaves her somewhat isolated, and her best friend is a servant, Nerissa. She has few other acquaintances. Jessica's situation is a much bleaker version of Portia's. Her father, Shylock, controls her every move and contact with the world outside their house. While Portia's father has created a very limiting challenge that may prevent his daughter from ever marrying, Shylock has allowed no visible opportunities for Jessica to meet a husband within the Jewish community. He keeps her isolated in their house, and like Portia her best friend is a servant, Launcelot Gobbo. By establishing these similarities between two women so outwardly different, the play provides insight into the limited options all women face in Renaissance Venetian society. Their lives are governed by their fathers until they marry; then they will be governed by their husbands.<br /><br />16. In The Merchant of Venice how do Jessica and Portia differ?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Neither Portia nor Jessica likes the level of control their fathers exert over their personal lives. Because Portia's father is dead, she feels she can do little to change her circumstances. Even though she doesn't like the method her father has instigated for choosing her husband, she accepts it and vows to follow his will. Her obedience hints at a relationship far more positive than the one Jessica has with Shylock. The play does not set forth a consequence for Portia should she opt to abandon her father's wishes, so despite her complaints, she has apparently chosen to do as he wishes even though he is not there to stop her. On the other hand, Jessica's father is alive and irritable. If Shylock were to discover her communication with Lorenzo, there is little doubt he would punish her, perhaps severely. He keeps her locked away from the world even when he thinks she is obedient. Instead of acquiescing to Shylock's wishes as Portia does with her father, Jessica takes the risk of rebellion. She liberates herself from her father's control. She actively chooses her own husband, and she chooses a man who would meet with her father's sternest disapproval.<br /><br />17. What personal flaw is evident in the Prince of Morocco's speech that indicates his unworthiness of Portia in The Merchant of Venice, Act 2, Scene 7?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Until the audience and Portia see Portia's father's plan in action, the challenge involving the three caskets seems at best like a haphazard way to choose a husband. However, once the Prince of Morocco undertakes the challenge and his reasoning becomes visible, the audience realizes the purpose of the challenge is to weed out unworthy suitors. The Prince of Morocco chooses the gold casket, drawn by the lure of "what many men desire." He believes this statement applies to gold as well as to Portia. Portia is pursued by many suitors, but the Prince of Morocco is taken in by outward appearances, and this is a tendency that defines his personality. When he first arrives, he introduces himself by asking Portia not to judge him for his complexion, so he is clearly preoccupied with how his own appearance affects others. As he chooses his casket, he reflects repeatedly on Portia's beauty, which seems to be her most important characteristic in his opinion. He relates to the world around him only according to surface appearances.<br /><br />18. How does Solanio and Salarino's gossip in The Merchant of Venice, Act 2, Scene 8 create sympathy for Antonio?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Antonio has endured some setbacks in recent days. A rumor is circulating that a ship has been lost near England. Solanio and Salarino suspect the ship is one of Antonio's, as does the rest of the city. The loss of a ship places Antonio one step closer to Shylock's clutches, and Solanio and Salarino cite Antonio's kindness as reason to sympathize with his financial losses. More importantly, Antonio appears grieved by Bassanio's departure. Salarino describes Antonio's eyes as "being big with tears" when he bids Bassanio farewell. He shakes Bassanio's hand in farewell but turns his face away to hide his sorrow. Solanio observes "I think [Antonio] only loves the world for [Bassanio]." In other words, the only thing in the world that brings Antonio true joy is Bassanio. His life is only worth living because Bassanio is in it. Whether this love is romantic or platonic at its core, it is a singularly strong connection. The prospect of Antonio losing this friend to marriage, which will change the nature of their relationship as marriage does, creates a connection between the audience and Antonio because it relates to a universal experience. Everyone has lost a close friend to a romantic connection or lost a romantic partner to someone else.<br /><br />19. Why is Shylock's initial reaction to Jessica's departure presented secondhand through Solanio and Salarino's gossip in The Merchant of Venice, Act 2, Scene 8?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Solanio and Salarino's gossip about Shylock's reaction to Jessica running away with Lorenzo allows them an opportunity to demonstrate their prejudice against Shylock. They seem to mock his pain at losing his sole family member, imitating his cries through the city square. More importantly, they are able to portray Shylock in keeping with the stereotype about Jewish moneylenders, a stereotype that assumes such men are greedy at the expense of all else. Their account of Shylock's words in lines 15 to 23 has him repeating the word ducats five times. He describes these ducats and enumerates how many bags of them are gone. In addition two full lines are devoted to the jewels he has lost. He says the word daughter five times also, but two of these mentions are to emphasize that she is the one who stole the ducats. Their breakdown of his language indicates he places greater value on the ducats than the daughter. However, it is important that this portrayal is filtered through Solanio's perception because it raises the possibility that his account is unreliable and the reality was less aligned with stereotype.<br /><br /> <br /><br />20. Why does the Prince of Arragon's choice of caskets reveal him to be a fool in The Merchant of Venice, Act 2, Scene 9?<br /><br /> <br /><br />The Prince of Arragon chooses the silver casket, which is inscribed with the words "Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves." This inscription, with its obvious allusion to entitlement and deserving, should serve as a warning to a thinking man not to choose the silver casket. The challenge has been devised by Portia's father to choose a worthy husband for her. A father who goes to this kind of trouble to look out for his daughter's interests is not a man likely to believe anyone is really worthy of his daughter, least of all a man who comes to the challenge with an ego inflated enough to believe he deserves her. The Prince of Arragon falls into the trap easily because he is a man with exactly such an ego. In his reasoning over the choice he sets himself apart from and above other men, thinking himself too good to choose gold. Furthermore, his inability to use simple logic to see the silver casket is a trap that brands him a fool.<br /><br /> <br /><br />21. In The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 1, why do Salarino and Solanio believe Shylock shouldn't be surprised by Jessica's departure?<br /><br /> <br /><br />When Shylock accuses Salarino and Solanio of knowing—"none so well as you"—about Jessica's plans to elope, they defend themselves by telling Shylock he should have known his daughter was sufficiently grown to want to leave home. Solanio says, "And Shylock for his own part knew the bird was fledge, and then it is the complexion of them all to leave the dam." Shylock has been in denial about Jessica becoming an adult and made no preparations to set her up with a husband or home of her own. Solanio and Salarino emphasize that it is the natural order of things for children to leave their parents and have their own lives. Shylock should not be surprised that Jessica wants what all young people want. When he says that his "own flesh and blood" has rebelled against him, Solanio does not even dignify the statement with a serious response, making a nasty joke about whether Shylock's body is capable of rebelling at his age. Children rebel against parents, and they are more likely to do so when the parent is as stifling as Shylock has been to Jessica.<br /><br />22. What does Shylock's speech in lines 57 to 72 of The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 1 say about human nature and prejudice?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Known as the "hath not a Jew" speech, Shylock's soliloquy is one of the best-known passages from The Merchant of Venice because of its appeal to the common experiences of all humanity. Shylock responds to a lifetime of prejudice with a range of emotions, starting with pathos and ending with rage. He begins by describing how all human bodies are the same with "hands, organs, dimensions." Then he moves into the common feelings all humans have, "senses, emotions, passions." All humans eat and are subject to injury and disease and respond to stimuli from the weather to physical contact. Shylock's listing of these common experiences represents his attempt to convince Solanio and Salarino that he is as human as they are and that prejudice is unnecessary because all humans have common values, strengths, and weaknesses. His tone becomes darker when he talks about the human desire for revenge. He is correct in his belief that Christians seek revenge just as freely as he does as a Jew. Shylock owns this part of his humanity; he embraces it. He sees no reason—if we all share a common humanity—why the right of revenge should be limited to only one group.<br /><br /> <br /><br /> <br /><br /> <br /><br /> <br /><br />23. In Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 1, how does Shylock's response to news about Jessica differ from Solanio's stereotyping in Act 2, Scene 8?<br /><br /> <br /><br />In Act 2, Scene 8, Solanio's account of Shylock's distress at losing Jessica emphasizes Shylock's focus on losing the money Jessica takes with her. Solanio's version paints Shylock with a greed that is recognized as stereotypical of the Jewish moneylender. However, Shylock's reaction to Tubal's news about Jessica somewhat contradicts that stereotype. His reaction is exaggerated, but not entirely focused on monetary loss. Shylock declares he wishes his daughter—he doesn't use her name—were dead and the money in her coffin. This desire implies that he is overcome with shame at her abandonment and her theft and would prefer to have lost her and the money to the grave than in such an embarrassing manner. He also expresses sentimental value for one of the items Jessica has taken—a turquoise ring Jessica's mother gave him during their courtship. He says, "I would not have given it for a wilderness of monkeys." This ring is special because of its origin, not because of its monetary value. Even though Shylock is concerned with his wealth—as his work requires—it is not his sole concern or even his most important worry.<br /><br />24. In The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 1, how does Shylock's response to news about Jessica reinforce Solanio's stereotyping in Act 2, Scene 8?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Even though Shylock's discussion with Tubal about the search for Jessica contains moments of sentimentality and expressions of shame at her leaving, the conversation centers heavily on money. Shylock says, "I know not what's spent in the search! Why, loss upon loss. The thief gone with so much, and so much to find the thief." He no longer refers to Jessica by her name. In this passage he does not even call her "my daughter." She is "the thief"; her whole relationship to her father is now defined by the manner of her leaving and the items she has taken from him. Shylock exaggerates his anguish further when he learns the diamond he spent to find Jessica, worth 2,000 ducats, has gone to waste. He claims "The curse never fell upon our nation till now, I never felt it till now." For him to equate the loss of 2,000 ducats to the suffering of his people over centuries is insensitive at best and indicates the kind of greed that Solanio attempts to illustrate when he gossips about Shylock.<br /><br />25. In The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 2, what does Jessica and Lorenzo's presence at Belmont reveal about gossip and hearsay in other scenes?<br /><br /> <br /><br />In Act 2, Scene 8 Salarino and Solanio recount how Antonio assured Shylock and the Duke of Venice that Jessica and Lorenzo did not leave Venice with Bassanio. This may be true because the play does not specify how they reached Belmont, but it seems suspicious that they have ended up in the same place as Bassanio at the same time. In Act 3, Scene 1 Tubal tells Shylock news of Jessica and Lorenzo sighted in the city of Genoa, another possibility, but they do not seem newly arrived at Belmont when they appear in Act 3, Scene 2. Tubal also reports how Jessica has traded her mother's ring for a monkey, but no monkeys are visible at Belmont. Perhaps the monkey is in another location, but its conspicuous absence implies the more likely conclusion that the monkey never existed. Much of the news that surfaces in Venice is based on secondhand accounts and hearsay, with Salarino and Solanio providing a primary conduit for such information, but Tubal supplementing it as well. Jessica and Lorenzo's peaceful presence in Belmont provides evidence to support the conclusion that the rumors and hearsay that drive the plot are often incorrect or incomplete. These erroneous accounts are not only misleading but dangerous. Antonio almost dies because news reaches Venice that all his ships have been lost, but in Act 5, Scene 1 three of his ships arrive safely back in Venice. These examples show the value of verifiable facts over rumor and gossip.<br /><br />26. In The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 2, how does the song in lines 65 to 74 provide hints to guide Bassanio through the challenge?<br /><br /> <br /><br />The song asserts that fancy "is engendered in the eye." This means that fancy—shallow affection and attraction—is based entirely on appearance, what can be seen with the eye. Fancy is not love. It is inconstant and might change just as what the observer sees changes. In this respect the song is a cautionary tale. It tells Bassanio that affections based on appearance are not substantial or valuable. The song goes on to describe how fancy dies "in the cradle where it lies" after being fed with gazing. The interest in a person or object wanes when the eye has had its fill and wants to look at something else, and this fleeting nature means that fancy will never have the chance to grow and mature into something substantial like love. Hence it dies in the cradle. Bassanio appears to understand this message because his first line after the song ends reads like a response that establishes cause and effect: "So may the outward shows be least themselves."<br /><br />27. What dramatic irony appears in Bassanio's reasoning as he chooses a casket in The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 2?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Bassanio's choice of casket rests on his understanding that the outward appearance of something is not representative of what is inside it. This principle is the crux of the casket challenge, which is designed to discourage suitors who are shallowly obsessed with external appearance and what they believe they deserve. Although Bassanio is sensible enough to choose the correct casket during the challenge—to understand that things and people of great value and substance may hide under plain exteriors—he has not lived his life according to this principle, a contrast the audience understands. The main conflict in the play results from Bassanio's need for money so he can present an appearance that will convince Portia of his prosperity. He does not confess the truth behind this image until he receives word Antonio's life is in danger, and he needs Portia's help. Bassanio knows exterior appearance often conceals a different reality because that is the reality he lives in.<br /><br />28. Why do Portia and Bassanio make multiple allusions to classical mythology as Bassanio faces the casket challenge in The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 2?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Portia first compares Bassanio to the hero Hercules rescuing a woman from a sea monster near Troy. This elevates the challenge before them to a hero's task of rescuing a maiden in distress. In reality Portia is not exactly a virgin sacrifice to a sea monster. She is a comfortable woman of means and high status who will go on living comfortably whether Bassanio wins the challenge or not. Bassanio is risking a great deal in accepting the challenge, as he will be prohibited from marrying anyone else if he fails, but this is not the same as facing a sea monster. In mulling over how "the outward shows be least themselves" and how "The world is still deceived with ornament," Bassanio mentions several examples, including three from classical mythology: cowards who sport "The beards of Hercules and frowning Mars" Medusa's "crispèd snaky golden locks" Midas's "gaudy gold" These allusions and Portia and Bassanio's desire to draw parallels between their love and the epics of ancient times highlight the comfort they enjoy in their lives as well as their need to create stories for themselves that make this odd ritual with the caskets into something romantic and legendary.<br /><br />29. What is significant about the ring Portia gives Bassanio in The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 2?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Because Portia and Bassanio's courtship has evolved through the highly artificial ritual surrounding the caskets, they have not had an opportunity to spend a lot of time together, get to know one another, and indulge in a romance. They have essentially met and moved immediately into marriage. Symbols of devotion, such as rings, take on special importance under these circumstances. They need to create shared experiences and understandings to compensate for the stories and memories they have yet to create. Portia promises Bassanio all she has, but she is also relinquishing her independence and sole control over her properties by marrying him. The ring signifies their bond, but the caveat she places on the ring—that if he "part from, lose, or give away" this ring it will "presage the ruin of your love"—also allows Portia to retain control over Bassanio. His continued ownership of the ring is an ongoing test of his loyalty and devotion to her.<br /><br />30. Why does Bassanio compare his courtship of Portia to the mythical quest for the golden fleece in The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 2?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Bassanio refers to the story of Jason and the Golden Fleece when speaking with Antonio before journeying to Belmont in Act 1, Scene 2. This parallel is an attempt for him to elevate his journey to woo Portia to the status of heroic legend, and the comparison makes some sense. Jason and his friends set sail to another land, just as Bassanio sets sail to Belmont. For Jason the prize is the golden fleece of a mystical ram. For Bassanio the fleece is Portia, the prize at the end of the quest. Bassanio's quest is less dangerous than the one Jason and his fellows attempt in legend, but Bassanio needs to believe he is engaged in a heroic activity to justify the risk Antonio has taken to make this quest possible. He makes the reference to Antonio because he needs Antonio to believe it as well. Ironically, Antonio is the one facing real danger in this scenario even though he never leaves home.<br /><br />31. What is surprising about Gratiano's decision to marry Nerissa in The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 2?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Throughout the previous scenes of the play, Gratiano has presented himself as a happy-go-lucky character who enjoys parties, socializing, and drink. He has not directly called himself a confirmed bachelor but has not presented himself as someone interested in settling down. He is seldom serious, always ready with a joke. Bassanio was afraid to bring Gratiano on this trip for fear Gratiano might embarrass him, so his decision to settle down comes as something of a surprise to Bassanio. Even after Gratiano explains how he "beheld" Nerissa and was taken with nervous sweat and a dry mouth, Bassanio questions him, "And do you, Gratiano, mean good faith?" His choice of words—"good faith"—implies Bassanio believes there is a chance Gratiano might not be serious, that he might be acting out of self-interest or making a joke. Yet Bassanio doesn't belabor the point, accepting Gratiano's affirmation of his good faith without further question.<br /><br />32. In The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 2, what indicates Gratiano and Nerissa are well suited for one another?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Gratiano and Nerissa play similar roles for Bassanio and Portia respectively, providing constant companionship. They offer frank advice to the people they care about, as Gratiano does with Antonio in Act 1, Scene 1 to break Antonio out of his bad mood. Nerissa does the same for Portia in Act 1, Scene 2. They are both forces of good cheer, humor, and common sense. Nerissa also appears to understand, or at least tolerate, Gratiano's bawdy sense of humor. After the very serious and heartfelt moment of confessing their intent to marry and receiving congratulations, Gratiano offers to make a bet with Bassanio and Portia as to which couple will have a son first. Nerissa says, "What, and stake down?" Gratiano replies, "No, we shall ne'er win at that sport and stake down." His joke equates the stake with sexual arousal, necessary for having a son. The scene ends without a specific reaction from Nerissa, but she has spent sufficient time with Gratiano to know this is the kind of humor she can expect from him.<br /><br />33. In The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 2, what does Portia's reaction to the news about Antonio reveal about her personality?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Portia has never met Antonio, but his predicament allows her an opportunity to demonstrate her devotion to Bassanio and her generosity of spirit. She shrugs off the 3,000-ducat sum of Antonio's debt and offers to pay Shylock twice or even four times the original value of the bond. Portia is exceedingly wealthy, so such an offer is easy for her to make. But since wealth can bring with it stinginess just as easily, this is still a very generous offer to make for a stranger. More importantly, Portia is generous with Bassanio himself. In Act 4, Scene 1 Bassanio will refer to Portia as his wife, and he and Portia will treat one another as spouses in Act 5 Scene 1, but the details of this scene reveal Portia's willingness to postpone her actual wedding for Antonio. She first asks Bassanio to "go with [her] to church and call [her] wife" before he leaves for Venice. After Bassanio reads Antonio's plea for Bassanio to come to Venice, Portia seems to drop this idea and urges Bassanio to "dispatch all business and begone!" The couple are married in the sense that they have made promises to one another and a ring has been given, but the ceremony will have to wait until Bassanio's return. She is patient and trusting, filled only with concern for the welfare of a man she does not yet know.<br /><br />34. Why does Shylock repeat the word bond so frequently in his lines in The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 3?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Shylock speaks a total of 16 lines in the first part of Act 3, Scene 3. In those lines he repeats the phrase, "I will have my bond" five times and says "Speak not against my bond" once. This repetition shows the single-mindedness of Shylock's thinking and action now. He refuses to talk with Antonio or consider yielding to "Christian intercessors." His thinking and speech border on the obsessive with this repetition. He cares for nothing except his bond, and he may feel the bond is all he has left in the world to care about. Shylock's household is empty. His wife is long dead. His daughter has fled the city. Even his servant Launcelot has moved on to a more appealing master. The word bond itself is also evocative of the situation Shylock and Antonio find themselves in. Antonio is literally bound in prison now, a state it doubtless makes Shylock happy to see since he mocks Antonio as "the fool who lent out money gratis." But the bond also connects Shylock to Antonio; his own fortunes are tied to what happens to Antonio next.<br /><br /> <br /><br />35. In The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 3, why does Antonio believe even the Duke of Venice can't stop Shylock?<br /><br /> <br /><br />The Duke of Venice is the highest authority in the city. In other cities rulers may govern like tyrants and issue edicts, but Venice is reputed to be a progressive society. Therefore, the duke is not above the law any more than his citizens are. Venice's progressive reputation has made it a center of trade, as Antonio points out when he says "the trade and profit of the city consisteth of all nations." The outcome of this case places the city's international reputation on the line. If the duke intercedes in this case and unilaterally nullifies Shylock's bond, it sets a dangerous precedent for the rule of law and the validity of all contracts in Venice. There will be nothing to stop other unsatisfied traders and merchants from bringing their own cases before the duke expecting their contracts to be nullified when an investment doesn't turn out as expected. Once contracts cannot be relied upon to be honored, the business that sustains the city will evaporate, and the entire society will suffer. For the good of his people, the duke must uphold Shylock's contract.<br /><br />36. Why doesn't Antonio care that he's about to die in The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 3?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Antonio's attitude in Act 3, Scene 3 is one of a man resigned to his fate. He knows it is pointless to try to reason with Shylock, who is driven by a hatred of years, perhaps decades, in the making. He knows the duke cannot intercede on his behalf without undermining the rule of law that ensures Venice's prosperity. Bassanio, the person Antonio cares for most in the world, is about to marry and move to Belmont. Whatever the precise nature of Antonio's love for Bassanio, their close relationship will be irrevocably changed, which creates deep sadness for Antonio. He says he only wants to see Bassanio once more before he dies, then he does not care what happens to him. Finally, Shylock's badgering, the loss of his ships, the loss of his friend, and the stress of the bond have taken a physical toll on Antonio. He acknowledges he has lost so much weight through worrying about this ordeal, he doubts he has a pound of flesh to spare. In this context Antonio will find in death a release from worries about his business and freedom from Shylock's harassment.<br /><br />37. In The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 4, what is Portia's opinion of Antonio even though they have never met?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Portia believes Antonio must be the soul of honor and goodness. She tells Lorenzo she believes people who establish long-term friendships—"whose souls bear an equal yoke of love"—either have or develop "a like proportion of lineaments, of manner, and of spirit." She concludes that Antonio must be very much like Bassanio in personality to sustain such a long friendship with him. In this respect Portia's assessment of Antonio is mostly correct. The prejudice evident in his relationship with Shylock aside, Antonio is an extremely devoted and loyal friend. He has made an enormous sacrifice to help Bassanio find a wife; he has placed his life on the line to help Bassanio be happy. He has not risked his life to save Bassanio's life or provide him with something truly essential to survival, only to help Bassanio become more comfortable. For his part Bassanio has taken many previous loans from Antonio and has professed his love and gratitude, but there is no evidence to indicate that he might be willing to make a similar sacrifice for a friend. When Portia says she believes Antonio is a good man because of his association with her husband, she might more accurately say Bassanio is a better man because of his association with Antonio.<br /><br />38. How does Portia feel about posing as a man in The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 4?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Portia's description of her plan, thus far, to disguise herself and Nerissa as men reflects excitement at the prospect. She makes an off-color joke about the disguise that references the differences between male and female genitalia when she says, "They shall think we are accomplished with what we lack." Portia has not made such references before, which indicates she is already embracing the freedom a masculine appearance will afford her. She speaks fondly of turning "mincing steps into a manly stride, and speak of frays like a fine bragging youth, and tell quaint lies how honorable ladies sought my love." The evidence present in Act 4 shows Portia doing none of these things—except walking with a manly stride. She is a serious and focused student of the law when she comes to court to defend Antonio. Her description of what she will do and say while in disguise reflects how she views adopting a different persona as an adventure and how she thinks men spend most of their time getting into fights and pursuing women, or at least saying they do.<br /><br />39. In The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, Scene 5, what do the jokes Jessica and Launcelot Gobbo share reveal about the nature of their relationship?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Launcelot makes a number of jokes in Act 3, Scene 5 that reflect deep prejudice against Jews and those who associate with them, and his ability to say such things without offending Jessica reflects how close and casual their friendship is. They have known one another for a long time, and Jessica has called him a "merry devil" in the past. Launcelot takes his humor to an extreme level, making jokes about both of Jessica's parents and implying she might be better off if she were an illegitimate child. He goes on to tease her about her husband for "making of Christians," a reference to Jessica's conversion to Christianity and her later production of Christian children. Jessica tells Lorenzo that Lancelot has said "there's no mercy for [her] in heaven" and that Lorenzo is "no good member of the commonwealth." If these were not statements made by a man well known as a fool and a clown, they must certainly offend because the words are insulting on their own merits. Lancelot's lower social status in this case protects him because fools are often allowed to say things in jest that others cannot.<br /><br />40. In The Merchant of Venice, Act 4, Scene 1, how does Antonio's professed patience at Shylock's rage reflect his own prejudice against Shylock?<br /><br /> <br /><br />In Act 1, Scene 3 Shylock claims to have borne Antonio's insults with patience over the years. Now the situation is reversed, and Antonio claims before the court that he is the one who endures Shylock's abuse with patience. This is true, but Antonio's position denies that he has ever done Shylock any wrong. Antonio has "a quietness of spirit" in response to Shylock now, but not long ago he threatened to continue calling Shylock dog and spitting on him in the street with little second thought. Antonio did not show this patience toward Shylock when he was engaging in the loan of 3,000 ducats that has brought them to court. Shylock previously described himself as the victim and Antonio as the aggressor, but now Antonio reverses that order. Neither man can see that each has victimized the other, and their mutual animosity and prejudice have brought them both here to court, to the edge of ruin.<br /><br />41. What words and actions paint Shylock as a true villain in The Merchant of Venice, Act 4, Scene 1?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Previous scenes with Shylock have left some rationale for his anger and presented him with some redeeming qualities. In Act 1, Scene 3 he is scheming and hateful toward Antonio, but he also details the grievances and abuses he has suffered at Antonio's hands. In Act 3, Scene 1 he may seem more concerned about his loss of money than about the loss of his daughter, but he also makes a passionate plea defending his own humanity and pointing out that the Christians have no room to judge him harshly for wanting revenge. On Shylock's day in court, however, he is intractable and his explanations for being there and for wanting Antonio's flesh amount to him saying "It is my humor" and leaving it at that. There is little balance to his malice as he will not hear pleas for mercy or reason. Instead, Shylock is seen sharpening his knife on the bottom of his shoe in court before a verdict has even been reached. It is a chilling action that reflects his overconfidence at the pending decision as well as his apparent relish and anticipation for what he is about to do—kill a man with the law's approval in front of a room full of people.<br /><br />42. How do Gratiano and Bassanio potentially make matters worse for Antonio in The Merchant of Venice, Act 4, Scene 1?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Gratiano and Bassanio's words and behavior in court show the kind of attitude and prejudice that over the years has escalated Shylock's distaste to hatred and finally to murderous rage. They lack any sort of empathy or understanding of Shylock's anger, which leads them to exacerbate it during the court proceedings. Perhaps Shylock is truly too stubborn to relent in his quest for revenge on Antonio, but when Bassanio calls Shylock an "unfeeling man" and Gratiano calls him a "damned, inexcrable dog" these words hardly prime Shylock to hear or be open to pleas for mercy when Portia and the duke deliver them. They fail to recognize that Shylock seeks Antonio's life for leveling similar insults. All they are doing is reminding Shylock of the insults that have led him to this place. For all the duke's pleas for mercy, for all Portia's pleas for mercy, none of these characters show Shylock any mercy until after he has nearly killed Antonio. The insults and hostility continue leading up to and throughout most of the trial, and this hostility only enables Shylock to continue the cycle of his hostility.<br /><br />43. What is the flaw in Portia's plea for Shylock to show Antonio mercy in The Merchant of Venice, Act 4, Scene 1?<br /><br /> <br /><br />The flaw in Portia's plea for Shylock's mercy is the same flaw present in Antonio's previous attempts to convince Shylock to change his mind: at no point do Antonio, Portia, the duke, or anyone else tell Shylock that they have been wrong in their mistreatment of him or offer an apology or amends. Portia's characterization of mercy as one of the highest ideals of humanity is a correct one, and one directly in line with Christian doctrine. She confirms this when she says mercy is "an attribute to God himself." However, according to Christian doctrine, God's mercy is directly tied to human repentance, which means someone who has done wrong must acknowledge that wrong and ask for forgiveness. "Mercy seasons justice," in Portia's words, but such seasoning is tied to a confession of some sort. While Antonio laments his own broken state in court, calling himself the weakest of the flock, he offers no direct acknowledgement of wronging Shylock. While Portia pleads with Shylock for mercy, she offers no apology on Antonio's—or society's—behalf. Even when the duke later shows Shylock mercy by not putting him to death for plotting against Antonio, Shylock expresses some understanding that he has been wrong, but the Christians do not make a similar display toward Shylock. Their refusal to acknowledge what they have done reflects the anti-Semitism ingrained in Christian Venetian society. Christians are the majority and have the right both legally and culturally to abuse Jews. This is so much a trait of their society that they no longer recognize it.<br /><br />44. How do Bassanio and Gratiano unknowingly damage their new marriages during the court proceedings in The Merchant of Venice, Act 4, Scene 1?<br /><br /> <br /><br />In lines 295 to 306 both Bassanio and Gratiano swear they would sacrifice their wives to spare Antonio's life. Bassanio says, "Life itself, my wife, and all the world are not esteemed to me above thy life. I would lose all, ay, sacrifice them all here to this devil, to deliver you." The statement is almost certainly an example of hyperbole, an extreme exaggeration to illustrate the depth of Bassanio's love for Antonio. After all, offering up another person to be sacrificed to Shylock's rage would not solve the problem at hand, only transfer it to someone else. If Portia were the target of Shylock's malice, it is easy to imagine Bassanio declaring he would sacrifice his friend as dear as life itself to save her. Gratiano echoes these sentiments, saying he wishes his wife were in heaven (therefore dead) so she might invoke the powers of heaven to change Shylock's mind. Again this is likely hyperbole. While Bassanio and Gratiano do not know their wives are present in the room, they do make these announcements in a public forum, the content of which could get back to Portia and Nerissa. However, since Portia is masquerading as Balthazar, the young doctor of law, and Nerissa as Balthazar's clerk, both Portia and Nerissa hear their husbands' words directly and each one makes a remark indicating her displeasure in an aside. Even if Portia and Nerissa understand these statements are exaggerated, the words still indicate a division in their husbands' loyalty. In the heat of conflict, Bassanio and Gratiano express not just extreme sympathy for Antonio's cause but a desire to sell out their wives to express that sympathy. Such statements do not create a solid foundation for a successful marriage.<br /><br />45. What does Bassanio's decision to give his ring to Portia after the trial reveal about his feelings for her in The Merchant of Venice, Act 4, Scene 1?<br /><br /> <br /><br />When Bassanio decides to give Portia his ring after the trial, he does not know he is giving it to her. Bassanio thinks he is giving the ring to a stranger named Balthazar, who has just saved his best friend's life. To Bassanio's credit, he does resist Portia's initial request for the ring and remains firm even when Portia berates him for insisting she take "some remembrance" then refusing her request. In short Bassanio's loyalty and love for his wife is almost sufficient to allow him to pass her test. Almost. It is clear Bassanio does love Portia, but when Antonio makes a simple statement—"let him have the ring"—Bassanio relents immediately. Portia does not hear this part of their exchange, but it is possible she can guess Antonio has prevailed on Bassanio to offer the ring. As much as he loves Portia and values her good opinion, he still values Antonio's opinion and affection more.<br /><br />46. Why is Antonio's and the duke's mercy for Shylock less merciful than it appears in The Merchant of Venice, Act 4, Scene 1?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Antonio and the duke allow Shylock to keep some of his fortune so he may use it to sustain his livelihood. Shylock points out that a death sentence is preferable to depriving him of the means to make a living and keep a house, and Antonio relents. Antonio's decision here is significant because much of his conflict with Shylock has centered on his disapproval of Shylock's line of work. Here Antonio has the opportunity to end Shylock's moneylending—to which Antonio objects—for good, but Antonio chooses not to do so. This action is as close as Antonio comes to acknowledging he has wronged Shylock in the past by preventing him from making a living. However, Antonio tacks on a mandate that Shylock must convert to Christianity, which may serve the same purpose. Christian doctrine prevents the lending of money with interest, as pointed out in Act 1, Scene 3. Shylock is rules-oriented enough that he may decide to follow this doctrine, and if he does not, Shylock's potential customers might well elect not to do business with a Christian moneylender who flouts doctrine in such a way. Furthermore, the conversion will make Shylock a social pariah. He has too much bad blood with the Christians of the city, especially after this trial, to be accepted among them. By converting he will be forced to leave his community and his synagogue, the nation of which Shylock is so proud. Shylock's life is spared through the court's mercy, but his identity is destroyed.<br /><br />47. What evidence appears in The Merchant of Venice, Act 4, Scene 2 that Portia is angry about Bassanio giving her his ring?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Portia elects not to join Bassanio and Gratiano for dinner after the ring is delivered, which provides one indication of her anger. The rejection is abrupt and short: "That cannot be." She offers none of the excuses or apologies that might usually accompany turning down hospitality when it is offered. Her thanks for the ring is likewise short and impersonal: "His ring I do accept most thankfully." She then asks Gratiano to guide her clerk to Shylock's house. There is no warmth in her tone, only the bare minimum of politeness in her words. When Nerissa plans to get Gratiano's ring as well, Portia is confident that Gratiano will prove as faithless as Bassanio. She vows to "outface them and outswear them too." The circumstances surrounding the ring have now become a competition of lies and deceptions that will punish the husbands, however briefly, for neglecting and disobeying the wishes of their wives.<br /><br />48. Why do Jessica and Lorenzo compare themselves to tragic lovers from classical myths in The Merchant of Venice, Act 5, Scene 1?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Jessica and Lorenzo enjoy a moonlit stroll and talk about how famous couples from classical legends enjoyed the same moonlight while in the bloom of love. Lorenzo references the hero Troilus, who was betrayed by his lover Cressida at Troy. Jessica mentions Thisbe, who caused her lover to kill himself when he thought she had been eaten by a lion. Lorenzo cites Dido, a queen who killed herself after the hero Aeneas abandoned her. Jessica mentions the sorceress Medea, who was betrayed by the hero Jason. Whereas Bassanio and Portia in Act 3, Scene 2 wish to associate themselves with the heroes of classical myths—including Jason and his quest for the golden fleece—here Jessica and Lorenzo invoke these stories ironically—that is, meaning the opposite of what they say. Unlike the doomed couples in these stories, Jessica and Lorenzo have faced adversity and successfully overcome it. They are hopeful for the future and make jokes about doomed lovers to distance themselves from those mythical lovers' negative fates.<br /><br />49. How does Portia's deception about the rings in The Merchant of Venice, Act 5, Scene 1 give her power that she has lacked through much of the play?<br /><br /> <br /><br />For a woman who runs an estate and has tremendous financial independence, Portia has little control over her own life. When she is introduced in Act 1, Scene 2, she complains how her father has deprived her of the chance to choose her own husband. Even though she ends up with the husband she wants, this happens according to the means her father set up, not through her own action. When Portia exercises social power, she does so through disguise or deception. She exercises power over life and death during her appearance in court in Act 4, Scene 1, but she must do so in the guise of a man. Despite her wealth, she would never be allowed to speak in such a capacity as herself. When Bassanio gives away her ring, Portia learns she is not even the most important person in her marriage: Antonio holds more sway over her husband than she does. Portia takes control of her marriage by revealing the ring to Bassanio and scolding him harshly for losing it. She raises the possibility that she could find another man if she wished by perpetrating the ruse that she had an affair with the legal scholar Balthazar, her own alter ego. Lastly, she reveals that she was Balthazar, which shows Antonio and Bassanio what a debt they owe to her as well as demonstrating her intelligence and resourcefulness in outwitting a courtroom full of men.<br /><br />50. What elements prevent the ending of Act 5, Scene 1 of The Merchant of Venice from being entirely happy?<br /><br /> <br /><br />The ending of The Merchant of Venice has many trappings of a comedy. Three couples—Lorenzo and Jessica, Bassanio and Portia, and Gratiano and Nerissa—retire to their marital beds, seemingly happy and content. Amends have been made for Bassanio and Gratiano parting with their wedding rings—although the conflict is resolved so quickly it's possible the underlying problem of their divided loyalties has yet to be truly resolved. The last line of the play is a bawdy joke from Gratiano who says, Were the day come, I should wish it dark Till I were couching with the doctor's clerk. Well, while I live, I'll fear no other thing So sore as keeping safe Nerissa's ring. He says that if it were already day, he would be looking forward to night, when he would be back in bed with Nerissa. But he references her alter ego in court, where she was disguised as the legal scholar's clerk. His reference to "Nerissa's ring" uses a pun to refer to the ring he wears on his finger as well as an Elizabethan slang term which used ring to refer to female genitalia. These elements are the very definition of a happy ending. However, the play does not end so well for two main characters. Antonio is now the odd man out in his social group. He has his life, and his fortune has been restored by the arrival of his ships—previously believed lost. Yet Antonio is alone. He has no partner of his own, and all his friends have left him to be with their wives. Anyone who has been the only single person at a party filled with couples can relate to the loneliness Antonio must be experiencing. He is the title character, the merchant of Venice, but he ends his story lacking the love that makes life worthwhile. Antonio's enemy, Shylock, is in a still worse position. He is old, widowed, and now childless because of Jessica's desertion. His fortune has been halved, and he has been forced to abandon his faith and has therefore lost all his friends and his cultural identity.<br /><br /> <br /><br />51. How does The Merchant of Venice demonstrate that prejudice creates a cycle of self-destruction for Antonio and Shylock?<br /><br /> <br /><br />If, as Portia says in Act 4, Scene 1, mercy blesses both the giver and the receiver of mercy, prejudice curses both giver and receiver. Antonio's prejudice against Shylock leads him into a situation that almost kills him. His actions toward Shylock, which Shylock enumerates in Act 1, Scene 3, provoke Shylock to seek revenge. Had Antonio never acted upon his attitude toward Shylock, never called him names, never spat upon him, never interfered in his business, he might have avoided Shylock's ire. Antonio is confident that his ships will return and allow him to repay the bond, but his agreement to Shylock's ludicrous request for a pound of Antonio's flesh also reveals Antonio's reluctance to back down from Shylock. Because of his prejudice he hates Shylock and doesn't want him to have the upper hand, which allows Shylock to obtain power over Antonio. Even when Antonio is in prison in Act 3, Scene 3 and on trial for his life in Act 4, Scene 1, Antonio does not relinquish his prejudice. He would rather die than offer Shylock any apology or true understanding. Antonio narrowly escapes death, but he learns nothing about prejudice. His request for Shylock to convert to Christianity reveals how his prejudice remains alive and well after the ordeal ends. In turn Shylock's prejudice against Christians in general and Antonio in particular brings about his own ruin. Shylock's prejudice becomes apparent in Act 1, Scene 3 when he says he hates Antonio "for he is a Christian." His resentment against Christians arises again when Jessica runs away with Lorenzo, and Shylock fixates on Lorenzo's Christianity in Act 3, Scene 1. Shylock's hardness toward Christians, with Antonio representing all his kind, leads Shylock to refuse to bend or show mercy to Antonio. Shylock is convicted of attempted murder and loses control of his fortune and his place in his own community as part of the sentence.<br /><br />52. What evidence in The Merchant of Venice supports labeling Bassanio as the true villain of the play?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Bassanio does not display the kind of deliberate malice that characterizes how Shylock and Antonio treat each other. Bassanio's villainy is passive, rooted in selfishness and carelessness that set negative events in motion. In Act 1 he acknowledges how his long history of debt has gotten him into trouble. Although he doesn't want to hurt Antonio, Bassanio knows he can count on Antonio for a loan. Antonio only borrows money so Bassanio can marry a woman wealthy enough to pay his debts. Bassanio offers some protest against Shylock's terms for the loan, but he ultimately allows Antonio to sign the bond. Bassanio does not offer his own body as an alternative to his friend's or walk away from the proceedings. His verbal protest is weak, and he accepts the money once it is obtained. Bassanio's wife Portia gets involved with Antonio's situation and his trial in Act 4 because her marriage to Bassanio obligates her to do so. Again, without the bond, brought about by Bassanio's debts, no trial would take place, and Antonio's life would not be at risk. Shylock would not be seeking his ill-advised revenge and would not lose his fortune or his religion. Portia places herself in a situation of extreme risk by impersonating a doctor of law before the Duke of Venice. Although she seems to enjoy her role in the trial, it might go badly for her if she were discovered. Bassanio's careless and impulsive decisions do not end after the trial. He nearly derails his marriage in Acts 4 and 5 by deciding to give away the ring Portia gave him and cautioned him never to part from. He's actually lucky the person he gives the ring is Portia in disguise. Had the ring truly been lost forever, the confrontation with her might have gone differently. Bassanio is too easily swayed by Antonio, and his decision creates strife for Gratiano as well. Most of the major conflicts in the play either originate with or are exacerbated by Bassanio's actions, which show how villainy can happen through thoughtless action as easily as through malice.<br /><br />53. How do the women in The Merchant of Venice defy traditional gender roles?<br /><br /> <br /><br />Portia is an independently wealthy woman who competently runs her estate without the help of a man. Suitors seek to marry her, and her comments in Act 1 indicate she might like the companionship of a partner. However, her willingness to remain "as chaste as Diana" the rest of her life rather than disobey her father's wishes shows she feels no need to marry except, perhaps, to rid her home of unappealing suitors. In Act 3 she agrees to marry Bassanio and gives him a ring. Traditionally the man gives the woman a ring. Portia also immediately takes charge of the problem with Antonio, offering Bassanio whatever money he needs to free his friend, breaking with the tradition that the man controls the purse strings. Most importantly, in Act 4 Portia relishes playing the part of a man and proves herself more intelligent than any of the men in court when she finds a way to save Antonio's life through a close reading of his contract. Finally, when Portia confronts Bassanio in Act 5 about the lost ring, she brazenly claims to have had an affair with "Balthazar," showing a level of sexual liberation not typical of Renaissance women. Nerissa's defiance of gender roles involves many of the same actions as Portia's. She, too, gives her husband a ring and impersonates a man. Nerissa distinguishes herself with her plain-spoken nature. She does not mince words or hold back her honest feelings, whether with Portia in Act 1 or with Gratiano in Act 5. Jessica also defies gender expectations with her outwardly rebellious behavior. Unlike Portia, Jessica is all too happy to defy her father's wishes, an act frowned upon in Jewish and Christian society alike. In Act 2 she conducts a secret courtship with a Christian man and boldly steals her father's money to run away with him. Her disguise as a boy reflects her rejection of the traditionally feminine. Although society places her below her husband, her conversations with Lorenzo in Acts 3 and 5 indicate they relate to one another as equals based on mutual love and respect.<br /><br />The Merchant of Venice | Themes<br /><br /> <br /><br />Prejudice<br /><br /><a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Shylock">Shylock</a> seeks revenge on <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Antonio">Antonio</a> as a representative of all the wrongs Christians have visited upon him and his people. Shylock's desire for revenge also reflects his outrage against Christians, but that outrage is a response to the prejudice he has faced as a Jew. Antonio has personally been responsible for many of the wrongs he has experienced, calling Shylock a dog and spitting on him. Antonio's friend Lorenzo also lures Shylock's only child away from home and marries her—making her a Christian at the same time. Shylock is limited to moneylending as a profession because other trades are closed to him; he resides in Venice's crowded ghetto, not even allowed to own land or choose where he lives. These prejudices create the anger that causes him to lash out at Christians, Antonio in particular; this in turn leads the Christians to act, again, on their prejudices, stripping him of his wealth and forcing him to convert to Christianity.<br /><br />Mercy<br /><br />At court <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Portia">Portia</a> (disguised as a legal scholar named Balthazar) pleads with <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Shylock">Shylock</a> to show <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Antonio">Antonio</a> mercy, to rise above the letter of his contract and be the better man despite the wrongs Antonio has shown him. Shylock refuses, and in turn the Christians of Venice, whose very belief system hinges on the mercy of God, spare Shylock's life but punish him. He loses half his fortune, but Antonio takes away Shylock's community and identity when he demands Shylock convert to Christianity. Paradoxically, those who want Shylock to be merciful show him little mercy once he has been defeated by the letter of the law. Perhaps neither Shylock nor Antonio truly deserves mercy, but that is the point of mercy. It should be offered to those who do not deserve it.<br /><br />Appearance versus Reality<br /><br />Whether the truth is locked in a casket, hidden under a suit of clothes, or written into a contract, in The Merchant of Venice appearances constantly deceive. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Portia">Portia</a>'s suitors, the Prince of Arragon and the Prince of Morocco, lose their chances at her hand because they are drawn to the glittery appearance of gold and silver caskets and choose the wrong casket in the challenge set up by Portia's father. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Bassanio">Bassanio</a>, who recognizes that great things may be hidden in humble exteriors and glittering exteriors may conceal emptiness beneath, wins the challenge by choosing the lead casket. Bassanio himself appears to be a wealthy man when he arrives at Portia's home, only later revealing the extent of his debts and poverty. In keeping with this theme, Portia disguises herself as a man so the reality of her wisdom and cleverness may be of service at court. While <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Shylock">Shylock</a> appears to be the play's villain, his suffering elicits the audience's sympathy.<br /><br />Worth<br /><br />Much of the plot of The Merchant of Venice hinges on wealth and who has it, but the real driver of the action is the emotional value placed on different objects. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Bassanio">Bassanio</a> and <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Antonio">Antonio</a> seek the loan from <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Shylock">Shylock</a> because Bassanio is in love with <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Portia">Portia</a>, and Antonio values Bassanio enough to put his life on the line to help him win her. Even though he is offered two or three times the sum of his loan in repayment, Shylock persists in demanding the pound of flesh because revenge on Antonio is more important to Shylock than money. Portia offers this money freely because she values Bassanio's happiness more than gold. She then tricks Bassanio into giving her alter ego his wedding ring—not because of the ring's inherent value but as a test of his loyalty. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/symbols/#Gold">Gold</a>, silver, and jewels are only valuable to these characters because of the feelings behind these items.<br /><br /> <br /><br />Lack of Control<br /><br />Few characters in The Merchant of Venice are in control of their own lives and destinies. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Antonio">Antonio</a>'s fortune and eventually his life is at the mercy of the waves and weather that carry his ships abroad and back to port. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Portia">Portia</a> has no control over who she marries because her father set up a riddle designed to choose her husband for her. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Bassanio">Bassanio</a> is controlled by the debts he owes. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Jessica">Jessica</a> lives her life under the heavy hand of her father's protection. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Shylock">Shylock</a> is subject to the control of the city's laws, which tell him where he can live and what kind of work he can do. Each of these characters attempts to overcome the forces that control them but with mixed results.<br /><br />The Merchant of Venice | Motifs<br /><br /> <br /><br />Ships<br /><br />Venice is a city built on a series of islands, connected by a network of waterways and canals. Ships are the primary means of transportation and show mobility and motion in this environment. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Bassanio">Bassanio</a>, for instance, travels by sea to Belmont to court <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Portia">Portia</a>. When <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Jessica">Jessica</a> and Lorenzo flee the city, they likely do so by ship as well. These characters have the privilege of mobility; only <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Shylock">Shylock</a>, stationary in Venice, has no affiliation with ships or travel.<br /><br />Ships are also the foundation of Venice's busy and lucrative trade with the rest of the world. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Antonio">Antonio</a>'s fortunes are entirely based on the ships that carry the goods he trades as a merchant, and it is the loss of those ships that almost costs him his life.<br /><br />Disguise<br /><br />Disguise is a part of Venetian life, as the citizens of the city are described as "masquers" who go about the city wearing masks as part of their revelries and celebrations. When Jessica escapes from her father's house, she does so dressed as a boy. Portia and <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Nerissa">Nerissa</a> disguise themselves as young men so they can be heard at court and, later, test their husbands' loyalties to them.<br /><br />It is worth noting that, in <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/author/">William Shakespeare</a>'s time, it was illegal for women to act on the stage; female roles were portrayed by boys or young men. So disguise was a necessary part of the play. The audience knew it, and Shakespeare played on this awareness in his dialogue, as when Lorenzo and Jessica discuss her embarrassment over being dressed "in the lovely garnish of a boy," as Lorenzo puts it (<a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/act-2-scene-6-summary/">Act 2, Scene 6</a>). The audience, knowing Jessica was a boy anyway, found this sort of banter amusing. Also, since men had to perform their roles, Shakespeare often had the supposedly female characters masquerade as boys or men—which was naturally very convincing. As a result, it was believable that even their husbands would not recognize Balthazar and his clerk as their wives.<br /><br />Allusion<br /><br />Allusion is a literary device in which the playwright makes a passing reference to something, someone, or someplace of cultural or artistic significance. The allusion is not explained, but the audience is expected to understand the reference and see how it relates to the events on the stage. Biblical and classical allusions abound in The Merchant of Venice. Shylock, Antonio, and other characters often refer to the Bible when discussing the ethics of issues such as moneylending, revenge, and mercy. Throughout the play, characters draw on classical mythology to illustrate the points they are making. The first allusion to a classical topic comes in the very first scene, when Solanio says, "Now, by two-headed Janus/... Nature hath framed strange fellows in her time" and, a few lines later, "That they'll not show their teeth in way of smile/Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable." Janus was the Roman god of beginnings and endings, especially associated with doors and gates; he was always shown with two faces—one looking forward and one backward. Nestor was a wise old king who advised the Greeks at Troy. Another allusion is to the classical tale of Jason and the Argonauts, who undertake a dangerous quest to acquire a golden fleece.<br /><br />Wordplay<br /><br />Another literary device found throughout The Merchant of Venice is wordplay, especially punning. Puns explore multiple or similar meanings of words to add richness, depth, and often humor to Shakespeare's dialogue. A good example is Portia's pun on the word will in <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/act-1-scene-2-summary/">Act 1, Scene 2</a> when she says, "So is the will of a living daughter curbed by the will of a dead father." Her own will is her desires or intention regarding the choice of a spouse, but her father's will carries the pun; it refers both to his intentions for her regarding her marriage and to his last will and testament, in which he set up the challenge for her suitors.<br /><br />Another type of wordplay is the riddles inscribed on the three caskets used in Portia's father's challenge to her suitors. For instance, the gold casket reads, "Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire." This can be read in several ways. Based on the fact that Portia is still single at the start of the play, her suitors probably often think along the lines of the Prince of Morocco—that, like gold, Portia is "what many men desire." But her father may well be thinking that many men when they are old, in pain, or very ill desire death since the gold casket contains a skull.<br /><br />Yet another form of wordplay is using words that sound similar but have different meaning. In <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/act-2-scene-2-summary/">Act 2, Scene 2</a>, for example, when Old Gobbo says of his son Launcelot that the boy "has a great infection to serve," he probably means "a great affection." Such linguistic near misses would have amused Shakespeare's contemporary audiences greatly. In the same scene Launcelot says to his blind father, "Nay, indeed, if you had your eyes, you might fail of the knowing me. It is a wise father that knows his own child." This is an insult veiled in what appears to be a compliment. But Launcelot does not mean his father is wise; since Old Gobbo doesn't "know" his son, a closer analysis shows that Launcelot is actually calling his father foolish. Shakespeare uses such wordplay to reinforce the idea that a surface reading is often the wrong one, that appearances can be deceptive.<br /><br /> <br /><br />The Merchant of Venice | Symbols<br /><br /> <br /><br />Gold<br /><br />Gold represents wealth, status, and power. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Bassanio">Bassanio</a> needs gold to demonstrate he is a man of quality, worthy of marrying <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Portia">Portia</a>. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Shylock">Shylock</a> uses gold to exert power over <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Antonio">Antonio</a> and others because he has little power in other parts of his life. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Jessica">Jessica</a> takes Shylock's gold as a show of power over her father when she leaves home. Yet the valuable parts of life have no relation to gold. Portia loves Bassanio even when she finds out he is penniless and in debt. Shylock discovers neither gold nor his attempt at revenge will improve his lot in life. Jessica has her father's wealth, but she values her relationship with Lorenzo more.<br /><br />Flesh<br /><br />Flesh is a symbol of life, the actual substance all living things are made of. <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Shylock">Shylock</a>'s religion indicates that some types of animal flesh are tainted and forbids their consumption. When <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Antonio">Antonio</a> accepts Shylock's demand for a pound of Antonio's own flesh to secure the loan for <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Bassanio">Bassanio</a>, he is actually placing his own life on the line as a potential sacrifice for Bassanio's happiness. When Shylock demands that pound of flesh as repayment for the loan, he demands Antonio's life as payment not for the bond but for the years of unhappiness Antonio—and Christian society in general—has caused him. The flesh itself is incidental, the real sacrifice at stake is the value of Antonio's life.<br /><br />Rings<br /><br />In The Merchant of Venice, rings represent love and commitment between partners. For example, when they agree to marry, <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Portia">Portia</a> gives <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Bassanio">Bassanio</a> a ring that she says represents their bond of love. She cautions him that if he loses the ring or gives it away, that will represent the destruction of their love. Later she tricks him into giving her the ring, but he only gives his disguised wife the ring after <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Antonio">Antonio</a> urges him to do so, revealing how Bassanio's bond to Antonio remains stronger than his bond to Portia. Only after Portia reveals her trick does Bassanio see his error and shift his loyalty fully to his wife. A different ring has special significance to <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Shylock">Shylock</a>, who laments a rumor he hears of <a href="https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Merchant-of-Venice/character-analysis/#Jessica">Jessica</a> trading the ring her mother gave him for a pet monkey. He is undone by the way he believes his daughter has disrespected the bond her parents had by treating the ring in such a cavalier manner.<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">.</span></p>
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Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-42069728679224632712014-04-28T14:12:00.002+06:002022-04-14T11:20:32.627+06:00Phonetic symbols for English:<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: navy; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>This is the standard set
of phonemic symbols for English (RP and similar accents).</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Consonants<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">p<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pen, copy, happen<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">b<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">back, baby, job<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">t<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tea, tight, button<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">d<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">day, ladder, odd<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">k<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">key, clock, school<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">g<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">get, giggle, ghost<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tʃ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">church, match, nature<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dʒ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">judge, age, soldier<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">f<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">fat, coffee, rough, photo<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">v<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">view, heavy, move<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">θ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">thing, author, path<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ð<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">this, other, smooth<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">s<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">soon, cease, sister<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">z<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">zero, music, roses, buzz<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ʃ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ship, sure, na<u>ti</u>onal<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ʒ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">plea<u>s</u>ure, vi<u>s</u>ion<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">h<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">hot, whole, ahead<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">m<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">more, hammer, sum<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">n<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">nice, know, funny, sun<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ŋ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ring, anger, thanks, sung<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">l<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">light, valley, feel<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">r<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">right, wrong, sorry, arrange<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">j<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">yet, use, beauty, few<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">w<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">wet, one, when, queen<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ʔ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(glottal stop)<br />
depar<u>t</u>ment, foo<u>t</u>ball<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Vowels<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ɪ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">kit, bid, hymn, minute<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">e<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dress, bed, head, many<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">æ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">trap, bad<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ɒ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">lot, odd, wash<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ʌ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">strut, mud, love, blood<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ʊ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">foot, good, put<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">iː<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">fleece, sea, machine<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">eɪ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">face, day, break<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">aɪ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">price, high, try<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ɔɪ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">choice, boy<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">uː<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">goose, two, blue, group<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">əʊ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">goat, show, no<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">aʊ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mouth, now<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ɪə<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">near, here, weary<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">eə<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">square. fair, various<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ɑː<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">start, father<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ɔː<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">thought, law, north, war<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ʊə<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">poor, jury, cure<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ɜː<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">nurse, stir, learn, refer<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ə<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">a</span></u></i><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">bout, comm<u>o</u>n, stand<u>ar</u>d<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">i<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">happ<u>y</u>, rad<u>i</u>ate.
glor<u>i</u>ous<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">u<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">thank y<u>ou</u>, infl<u>u</u>ence,
sit<u>u</u>ation<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">n̩<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">sudd<u>en</u>ly, cott<u>on</u><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">l̩<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">midd<u>le</u>, met<u>al</u><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: darkgreen; font-family: "Lucida Sans Unicode","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ˈ<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(stress mark)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-38963226759311644312014-04-28T13:55:00.003+06:002022-04-14T11:20:34.956+06:00Word class membership:<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Although the caption
above may give the impression that any one word within a single meaning belongs
exclusively to one word class, you should note that this is not the case. Study
the words in bold in the following examples:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">I
could not give her an immediate <b>answer</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">I
was surprised when he <b>answered</b> my letter.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Do
not write on the front of the <b>answer</b> sheet.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">In
the first sentence, answer is being used as a noun – note the
attributive adjective immediate and the word an, both indicative of a
following noun.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">In
the second, answer is a verb – the subject he and the
ending –ed show this.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">While
in the third, answer tells you what kind of sheet is being
talked about and is, therefore, an adjective.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">This flexibility in word
class membership is a peculiar feature of English among the European languages,
many of which would require different endings to show the class of the word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-font-width: 80%;">Some words belong to more than one part of speech.
We can’t know what part of speech a word is until we see what work it is doing
in a sentence. A word can do different jobs in different sentences.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
<b>Look at the following sentences.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
</b><br />
1. Give me some water.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
2. They water the plants daily.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
In the first sentence the word <b>WATER</b>
names something. So it is a noun.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
In the second sentence the same word <b>WATER</b>
expresses an action. It tells what they do. Here it is a verb.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
Study the word <b>FAST</b> in the following
sentences.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
1. He didn’t take anything during the fast. (It names something. So it is a
noun.)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
2. Muslims <b>FAST</b> during Ramazan. (It expressess
an action. It tells what Muslims do. So, it is a verb.)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
3. I missed the <b>FAST</b> train. (It adds
to the meaning of the noun train. What kind of a train? A fast train. So, it is
an adjective.)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
4. She speaks fast. (It adds to the meaning of the verb SPEAKS and tells how
she speaks. So, it is an adverb.)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
The word FAST is a noun in 1, a verb in 2, an adjective in 3 and an adverb in
4.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
Here are further examples.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>Above:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></b><br />
We flew above the clouds. (<b>Preposition</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
Have you read the above sentence? (<b>Adjective</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
See above. (<b>Adverb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
<b>Back:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></b><br />
I have a pain in the back. (<b>Noun</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
I will come back in five minutes. (<b>Adverb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
Have you closed the back door? (<b>Adjective</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
He backed his car through the gate. (<b>Verb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
<b>Better:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></b><br />
This watch is better than that. (<b>Adjective</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
He singes better than you. (<b>Adverb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
You should respect your betters. (<b>Noun</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
Living conditions have bettered a great deal. (<b>Verb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
<b>Down:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></b><br />
The little girl feels down. (<b>Adverb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
He ran down the hill. (<b>Preposition</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
We caught the down train. (<b>Adjective</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
The government downed the opposition. (<b>Verb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
<b>Like:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></b><br />
Children like sweets. (<b>Verb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
He climbs like a cat. (<b>Preposition</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
You won’t see his like again. (<b>Noun</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
Tashi and his brother are very like. (<b>Adjective</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Near:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
He lives near the station. (<b>Preposition</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
Most of my near relatives live abroad. (<b>Adjective</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
He got nervous as the examinations neared. (<b>Verb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
I went near enough to see over it. (<b>Adverb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
<b>Right:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></b><br />
You are quite right. (<b>Adjective</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
Keep to the right. (<b>Noun</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
Go right to the end of the road. (<b>Adverb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
They were able to right the boat. (<b>Verb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
<b>Round:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></b><br />
The earth is round. (<b>Adjective</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
The boys ran round the tree. (<b>Preposition</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
Will you come round to our house this evening? (<b>Adverb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
We won the first round of the tennis cup. (<b>Noun</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
The child’s eyes rounded with excitement. (<b>Verb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
<b>Up :<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></b><br />
You should stand up when the teacher comes in. (<b>adverb</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
He climbed up the hill. (<b>Preposition</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
What time is the next up train? (<b>Adjective</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
He hit the ball on the up. (<b>Noun</b>)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-24043474335915125932014-04-28T13:52:00.000+06:002017-10-31T12:35:00.827+06:00Verbs in English grammar:<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The verb is central to the English clause and that it is a
word which describes an 'action' of some sort. But there are also other types
of verbs. Would you, for example, categorize<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>become</em>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>smell</em>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>resemble</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>possess</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>as 'action' verbs? Clearly we need a
more accurate and extended definition of a verb so that we can identify this
word class with more precision. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
One common classification of the main types of verb is
given below with examples:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Activity</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>play, speak, run, telephone,
bathe, organize, read, raise, look at, listen to, refuse, and scratch</em>. The
vast majorities of verbs are included in this class and are what we normally
understand an 'action' word to be.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Process</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>ripen, change, strengthen, grow,
deteriorate, become, die, go, come, and fall</em>. This class of verbs is used
to indicate a change from one state to another.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sensation</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>hurt, ache, sting, smart, and itch</em>.
This is a small class of verbs that are used to refer to bodily sensations.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Momentary</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>knock, beat, tap, nod, hop, and
jump</em>. These verbs, although closely related to the first category, have a
shorter duration of action.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cognition</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>know, remember, perceive, prefer,
want, forget, and understand</em>. These verbs have less to do with an overt
action since they involve mental or cognitive processes.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Perception</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>see, smell, feel, taste, hear</em>.
This small class of verbs is closely linked with verbs of cognition, but centre
on the senses rather than cerebral activity.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Relational</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>be, consist of, own, have, seem,
resemble, appear, sound, look (good), belong to</em>. This category of verbs is
used to connect two closely related concepts, usually either through
equivalence or possession.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
These seven categories cover, by and large, the main verb types
in English and also constitute the sub-classes of a broader grammatical
division of verbs into<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>dynamic</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>verbs and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>stative</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>verbs. In the list above, categories 1
to 4 consist of dynamic verbs, while 5 to 7 contain stative verbs. Let's look
at a few examples to illustrate what is meant by the dynamic/stative contrast.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Study the following pairs of sentences:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">1.
I stay with friends every year.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">2.
I am staying with friends at the moment.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">3.
He eats sandwiches for lunch.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">4.
He is eating a sandwich.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">5.
We listen to Radio 1 in the morning.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><em><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span></em><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">6. We are listening to Radio 1.<o:p></o:p></span></em></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
All of the sentences contain<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>dynamic</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>verbs taken from category 1 in the
list above. The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>odd</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>numbered sentences are all examples of
the Present Simple tense which, in these cases, indicates an activity that
occurs with regular frequency, namely<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>every
year</em>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>every lunchtime</em>,
and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>every morning</em>. The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>even </em>numbered sentences,
however, limit the time of the activity to the moment of speaking and are
therefore temporary in nature. The verbs are, therefore in the Present
Continuous tense. Dynamic verbs, then, can be found in both simple and
continuous tenses.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Now look at the following pairs of sentences which contain<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>stative</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>verbs taken from categories 5 to 7:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">I
want to go home.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">*I
am wanting to go home.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">We
all love chocolate.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">*We
are all loving chocolate.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">This
bag belongs to me.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">*This
bag is belonging to me.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The first sentence of each pair, with the Present Simple
tense is grammatically acceptable, but the second sentence of each pair is not.
As a general rule, then, stative verbs are not found with the continuous
tenses, but there are specific times when most of the stative verbs<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>can</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>be used with a continuous tense.
However, these situations are limited to specific uses or entail a change in
the basic meaning of the verb, for example:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>I
think you're right</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>I'm thinking of you</em>. In the
first example I am giving you my opinion and so the verb refers to cognition,
whereas in the second, the thinking is much more akin to an activity. You will
probably find that this kind of distinction can be made for most of those
stative verbs that can be used with both simple and continuous tenses.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">Main Verbs (Lexical Verbs):<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Main verbs have meaning on
their own (unlike</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> helping verbs</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">). There are thousands of main verbs, and we can classify them in
several ways:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Transitive and intransitive verbs<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">A transitive verb takes a
direct object:</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Somebody killed the President.</span></i><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">An intransitive verb does not have a direct object:</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">He died.</span></i><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Many verbs, like</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">speak</span></i><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">, can be transitive or intransitive. Look at these examples:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Transitive:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">I</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">saw</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">an
elephant.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">We are</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">watching</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">TV.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">He</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">speaks</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">English.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Intransitive:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">He has</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">arrived</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">John</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">goes</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">to
school.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">She</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">speaks</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">fast.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Linking verbs<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">A linking verb does not
have much meaning in itself. It "links" the subject to what is said
about the subject. Usually, a linking verb shows equality (=) or a change to a
different state or place (>). Linking verbs are always intransitive (but not
all intransitive verbs are linking verbs).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">Sarah</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">is</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">a
teacher. (Mary = teacher)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">Pauline</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">is</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">beautiful.
(Tara = beautiful)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">That</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">sounds</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">interesting.
(that = interesting)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">The sky</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">became</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">dark.
(the sky > dark)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">The bread</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">has
gone</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">bad.
(bread > bad)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Dynamic and stative verbs:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Some verbs describe action.
They are called "dynamic", and can be used with continuous tenses.
Other verbs describe state (non-action, a situation). They are called
"stative", and cannot normally be used with continuous tenses (though
some of them can be used with continuous tenses with a change in meaning).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Dynamic verbs (examples):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">hit, explode, fight, run, go<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Stative verbs (examples):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">be<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">like, love, prefer, wish<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">impress, please, surprise<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">hear, see, sound<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">belong to, consist of, contain,
include, need<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">appear, resemble, seem<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Regular and irregular verbs:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">This is more a question of vocabulary
than of grammar. The only real difference between regular and irregular verbs
is that they have different endings for their past tense and past participle
forms. For regular verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending is
always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past
participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Regular
verbs:</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">base, past tense, past participle<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">look, looked, looked<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">work, worked, worked<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Irregular
verbs:</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">base, past tense, past participle<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">buy, bought, bought<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">cut, cut, cut<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt;">do, did, done<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Regular Verbs:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">English regular verbs
change their form very little (unlike</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> irregular
verbs</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">). The past tense and past participle of regular
verbs end in</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">-ed</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">, for example:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-right: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">work, work<b>ed</b>, work<b>ed</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">But you should note the
following points:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">1. Some verbs can be both
regular and irregular, for example:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-right: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">learn,</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">learned</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">, learned<br />
learn,</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">learnt</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">, learnt<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">2. Some verbs change their
meaning depending on whether they are regular or irregular, for example
"to hang":<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><br /></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; mso-cellspacing: 0in; mso-padding-alt: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">regular</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">hang, hanged, hanged<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">to kill or die, by dropping with a rope around
the neck<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">irregular</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">hang, hung, hung<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">to fix something (for example, a picture) at
the top so that the lower part is free<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">3. The present tense of
some regular verbs is the same as the past tense of some irregular verbs:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><br /></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; mso-cellspacing: 0in; mso-padding-alt: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt; width: 154.5pt;" valign="top" width="206"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">regular</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt; width: 337.5pt;" valign="top" width="450"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">found</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">,
founded, founded<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt; width: 154.5pt;" valign="top" width="206"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">irregular</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt; width: 337.5pt;" valign="top" width="450"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">find,</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">found</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">,</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">found</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Irregular Verbs:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "verdana" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Irregular verbs are an
important feature of English. We use irregular verbs a lot when speaking, less
when writing. Of course, the most famous English verb of all, the verb "to
be", is irregular.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">What is the difference
between</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> regular verbs</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> and irregular verbs?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><br /></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; mso-cellspacing: 0in; mso-padding-alt: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Base Form</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Past Simple</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Past Participle</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="4" style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">With</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">regular</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">verbs, the rule is simple...<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3" style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">The past simple and past participle always end
in -ed:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">finish<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">finish<b>ed</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">finish<b>ed</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">stop<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">stopp<b>ed</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">stopp<b>ed</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">work<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">work<b>ed</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">work<b>ed</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="4" style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">But with</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">irregular</span></b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">verbs, there is no rule...<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Sometimes the verb changes completely:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">sing<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">sang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">sung<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Sometimes there is "half" a change:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">buy<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">bought<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">bought<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Sometimes there is no change:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">cut<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">cut<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt 5.25pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">cut<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">One good way to learn
irregular verbs is to try sorting them into groups, as above.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
How is the verb
incorporated into larger grammatical structures, and how is its meaning and
function extended?<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span style="color: #17365d; font-size: 14.0pt;">The Verb Phrase:</span></strong><span style="color: #17365d; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The following
sentences help to illustrate the possible range of structures in the English
verb phrase (in bold).<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">I</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">play</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">the piano.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The
family</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">left</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">early.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">He</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">is talking</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">rubbish.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Sarah</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">can sing</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">opera.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">We</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">used to have</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">kippers for breakfast.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">I</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">have been painting</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">the
lounge.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">We</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">might be seeing</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">each
other next week.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">You</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">should have been watching</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">the
baby.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The
wallet</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">might have been lost</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">at
the party.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><em><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span></em><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The report</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">must have been being prepared</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">by
the boss.<o:p></o:p></span></em></div>
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<br /></div>
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From these
examples we can see that there may be up to four, possibly even five, separate
words in the verb phrase of a clause and they all have a particular part to
play in the overall meaning.<o:p></o:p></div>
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So, what are the
individual elements of the verb phrase and how does each of them contribute to
the meaning? Let's first analyze some of the sentences above as an
illustration:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="background: #FAFAFA; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 83.6pt;" width="111"><h4 align="center" style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Subject<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
<td style="background: #FAFAFA; border-left: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 99.0pt;" width="132"><h4 align="center" style="margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Modal<br />
auxiliary verb<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
<td style="background: #FAFAFA; border-left: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 1.25in;" width="120"><h4 align="center" style="margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Primary<br />
auxiliary verb(s)<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
<td style="background: #FAFAFA; border-left: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 81.0pt;" width="108"><h4 align="center" style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Main verb<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
<td style="background: #FAFAFA; border-left: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 117.0pt;" width="156"><h4 align="center" style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Object<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 83.6pt;" width="111"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>I</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 99.0pt;" width="132"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>-</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 1.25in;" width="120"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>-</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 81.0pt;" width="108"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>play</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 117.0pt;" width="156"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>the
piano.</em></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 83.6pt;" width="111"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>He</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 99.0pt;" width="132"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>-</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 1.25in;" width="120"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>is</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 81.0pt;" width="108"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>talking</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 117.0pt;" width="156"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>rubbish.</em></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 83.6pt;" width="111"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>Sarah</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 99.0pt;" width="132"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>can</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 1.25in;" width="120"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>-</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 81.0pt;" width="108"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>sing</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 117.0pt;" width="156"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>opera.</em></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 83.6pt;" width="111"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>I</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 99.0pt;" width="132"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>-</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 1.25in;" width="120"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>have
been</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 81.0pt;" width="108"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>painting</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 117.0pt;" width="156"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>the
house.</em></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 83.6pt;" width="111"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>You</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 99.0pt;" width="132"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>should</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 1.25in;" width="120"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>have
been</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 81.0pt;" width="108"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>watching</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 117.0pt;" width="156"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<em>the
baby.</em></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
You will notice that the various parts of the verb phrase
have been divided into two main categories: <em>auxiliary
verbs</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>main verb.</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>The former has been further sub-divided into<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>modal auxiliary</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>primary auxiliary</em>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
You may also
have noticed that there are a number of different possible configurations of
these elements; e.g. main verb only, modal auxiliary plus main verb, one
primary auxiliary plus main verb, two primary auxiliaries plus main verb and so
on. However, the only indispensable element of the verb phrase is the main
verb, because it is here that the basic, unchanging meaning of the verb phrase
lies.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h1 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .1in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #bd0f11; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; line-height: 115%;">What's an auxiliary verb?<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Besides acting as the main verb of a sentence, verbs are
also helpful in a number of other ways, which are not so obvious. There are
also auxiliary or 'helping' verbs that are used in a variety of ways. The main
auxiliary verbs are<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>be</em>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>have</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>do</em>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">They are used with main verbs
to make specific tenses:<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">is</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">coming.</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">present
continuous</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">She</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">wasn't</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">driving.</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">past
continuous</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">We</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">haven't</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">seen
an eclipse before.</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">present perfect</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><em><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span></em><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">She</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">had</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">dropped
her keys.</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">past perfect<o:p></o:p></span></em></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt -13.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The verb<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>be</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ a past participle is also used to
make passive forms:<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">The road</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">is</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">mended
once a year.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">The engines</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">are</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">made
in Germany.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">The votes</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">are being</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">counted
in the hall.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">The whales</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">had been driven</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">onto the shore.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The auxiliary verbs are used
to make questions:<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Do</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">you
want a drink?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Don't</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">you
like opera?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Have</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">you
finished the work yet?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Which train</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">do</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">you think
you'll catch?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary verbs are used to
make exclamations:<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Wasn't</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">she
awful!<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Haven't</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">you
grown!<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Didn't</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">they
do well!<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Isn't</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">it
freezing!<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To make questions tags:<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">We're very happy,</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">aren't we?</span></i></strong><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">It's cold,</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">isn't it?</span></i></strong><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You don't like fish,</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">do you?</span></i></strong><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You haven't had a happy childhood,</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">have you?</span></i></strong><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
[Note that the verb<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>to be</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is the most common
verb in English and it is the only one that can operate as both a main verb and
an auxiliary verb. It doesn't need any additional help to make questions or
negatives].<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I am very happy.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Am I very happy?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I'm not very happy.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Compare this with the verbs<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>do</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>have</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>which need
additional help to make questions and negatives.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">have</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">a very large nose. I</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">don't
have</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">a
very large nose.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">do</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">my piano practice at 6 o'clock. I</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">don't
do</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">my
piano practice.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></h4>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><em><span style="color: navy; font-size: 12.0pt; font-style: normal; line-height: 115%;">modal</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">auxiliary verb?</span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
They are also
'helping' verbs because they are used to express a range of meanings, such as
certainty, probability, possibility, suggestion, permission, instructions,
requests, obligations, necessity, ability and so on. The main modal auxiliary
verbs are:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">can,
could, may, might</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">shall,
should, will, would</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">must,
ought, to</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">also</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">need
to be able to, have (got) to</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The main types of use of
modal auxiliary verbs</span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>certainty / probability</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(<em>must, will, ought to, can't,
should</em>)<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">must</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">be
feeling very unhappy at the moment.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">She</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">ought to</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">forget
him, and move on.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>possibility</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(<em>may, might, could, can</em>)<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">She</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">might</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">arrive
on the 5 o'clock train.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">They</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">may</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">come
on Sunday, but I'm not sure.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>suggestion</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(<em>may, could, shall, might</em>)<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Shall</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">we
start again?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">may</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">want
to read over your essay again.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>permission</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(<em>may, can, could</em>)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Can</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I
connect this wire now?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">may</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">begin
the examination.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>instructions and requests</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(<em>would, will, can, could</em>)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Can</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">you
explain that in words of one syllable?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Could</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">you
close the door, please?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>obligations / necessity</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(<em>must, have to, have got to</em>)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">must</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">send
my mother a card on her birthday.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I'<em>ve</em></span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">got to</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">re-write
this essay.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>ability</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(<em>can, could, be able to</em>)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">couldn't</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">stop
laughing!<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He won't</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">be able to</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">shift
that stone.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
<h1 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .1in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #17365d; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; line-height: 115%;">Modal auxiliary verbs<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Modals auxiliary verbs are a very complex area of English
grammar, so in this quick guide we will not be able to go into much detail, but
we will at least get an overall idea of what their function is in a sentence.
In an earlier section of this guide we looked at how the verb phrase can be
broken down into its constituent parts and we noted that one of these parts was
called a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>modal auxiliary verb</em>. Just
to remind you of the previous examples, a section of the chart has been
reproduced below:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 621px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="background: #FAFAFA; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 65.6pt;" width="87"><h4 align="center" style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Subject<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
<td style="background: #FAFAFA; border-left: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 81.0pt;" width="108"><h4 align="center" style="margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Modal<br />
auxiliary verb<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
<td style="background: #FAFAFA; border-left: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 1.5in;" width="144"><h4 align="center" style="margin-top: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Primary<br />
auxiliary verb(s)<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
<td style="background: #FAFAFA; border-left: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 94.5pt;" width="126"><h4 align="center" style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Main verb<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
<td style="background: #FAFAFA; border-left: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 117.0pt;" width="156"><h4 align="center" style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Object<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 65.6pt;" width="87"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
Sarah</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 81.0pt;" width="108"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
can</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 1.5in;" width="144"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
-</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 94.5pt;" width="126"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
sing</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 117.0pt;" width="156"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
opera</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 65.6pt;" width="87"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
You</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 81.0pt;" width="108"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
should</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 1.5in;" width="144"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
have been</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 94.5pt;" width="126"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
watching</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 117.0pt;" width="156"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
the baby</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Examples of modal auxiliary
verbs<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Before we look
at some of the possible meanings of modal auxiliary verbs we need to have some
idea of what constitutes a modal in English and where they occur in a sentence.
A few more examples should enable us to answer the second of these points
fairly quickly and easily - the modals are in bold:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">should</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">be
here by now.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">could</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">swim
quite well when I was younger.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">mustn't</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">blame
yourself for this.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">might</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">have
discussed it with me first.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">can't</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">be
serious!<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Could</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">you
open the window please?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Must</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">you
make so much noise?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">She</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">had to</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">take
her brother along with her.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">We</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><strong><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">ought to</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">be
going.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
It should be clear from these examples that the modal verb
occupies the first position in verb phrase, coming before any other auxiliary
verb (like<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>have</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>be</em>) and the main lexical
verb.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
In questions the modal verb is simply inverted with the
subject of the sentence as in examples 6 and 7 and it also carries the negative
particle<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>not</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(3rd and 5th
examples).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The subject of
the sentence has no effect on the form of the modal since almost in all cases
they do not change at all.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
So, a modal verb is quite simple as far as its form and
position in various types of sentence are concerned; but what exactly are the
modal verbs in English? The chart below lists the main modal auxiliaries that
you are likely to meet and divides them into two categories<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>pure modals</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>semi-modals</em>, although in
most cases the distinction is merely formal and their meanings are not affected
by this division.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 621px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="background: #FAFAFA; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 232.1pt;" width="309"><h4 align="center" style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pure
modals<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
<td style="background: #FAFAFA; border-left: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 3.25in;" width="312"><h4 align="center" style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Semi-modals<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 232.1pt;" width="309"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
can</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 3.25in;" width="312"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
ought to</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 232.1pt;" width="309"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
could</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 3.25in;" width="312"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
has/have (got) to</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 232.1pt;" width="309"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
may</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 3.25in;" width="312"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
be able to</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 232.1pt;" width="309"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
might</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 3.25in;" width="312"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 232.1pt;" width="309"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
shall</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 3.25in;" width="312"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 232.1pt;" width="309"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
should</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 3.25in;" width="312"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 232.1pt;" width="309"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
will</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 3.25in;" width="312"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 232.1pt;" width="309"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
would</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 3.25in;" width="312"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 232.1pt;" width="309"><div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: center;">
need <b>***</b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 3.25in;" width="312"></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>***</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>need</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is a special verb
since as an auxiliary it is almost always negative and it is also a lexical
verb as in sentences like<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>he needs to speak to you now</em>, while it acts as a modal verb in sentences such as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>you needn't come to work tomorrow</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>where it has the same meaning as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>don't have to</em>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .1in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-size: 12.0pt;">The forms of
pure modals:<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The main
characteristics of the pure modals are:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">they never change their form
irrespective of the subject of the sentence<br />
e.g.</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">he
can swim</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">, not</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">*he
cans swim</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">following on from the above feature,
they do not change to show past tense<br />
e.g.</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">she
had to leave</span></i></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">not</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">*she musted leave</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">they all carry the negative of the
sentence by the addition of</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">not/n't</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
e.g.</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I
can't remember</span></i></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">not</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">*I don't can remember</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">they all form questions by inversion
with the subject of the sentence.</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
e.g.</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">should
I stay?</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">they are all followed by the base form
of the verb without the addition of</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">to</span></i></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
e.g.</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">he
can swim</span></i></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">not</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">*he can to swim</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .1in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-size: 12.0pt;">The forms of
semi-modals:<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
You will notice that this type of modal is made up of two
or more separate words, the last one invariably being<span class="apple-converted-space"> ‘</span><em>to’</em>. They are all modal in
meaning but not in form as they behave differently in a sentence from the pure
modals. It is perhaps best to think of the semi-modals in the form with the<span class="apple-converted-space"> ‘</span><em>to’</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>infinitive that is
given in the table rather than thinking of them as modals that need<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>to</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ base form. We need
to look at the form of each individual semi-modal separately.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be able to:<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
We use this semi-modal to express possibility or the
ability to do something, but unlike the pure modals, <em>be able to</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>has a full range of
tenses and also needs to inflect to show agreement with its subject. For
example:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He is able to offer you the best price
possible.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">We were able to get in to see the film.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">They haven't been able to find the
missing document.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">So, you aren't able to help.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Notice that the negative is carried either by the<span class="apple-converted-space"> ‘</span><em>be’</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>element or the
auxiliary verb that is closest to the subject of the sentence. It can also be
accompanied by any of the pure modals:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I will be able to see you after lunch.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">They might not be able to put us up for
the night.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Has/have (got) to:<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
This is used to express necessity or obligation to do
something and shares some of the features of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>be able to</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>discussed above. The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>have</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>element of the form
has to change to agree with its subject. Although it is normally used in the
present tense, it also has its own past (<em>had to</em>) and can be used with pure modals to show the future or
the attitude of the speaker:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">They have to be more punctual.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He has to take responsibility for the
accident.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I had to help my father repair his car.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">We will have to put this off until
tomorrow.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You shouldn't have to suffer in silence.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You don't have to come if you don't want
to.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He didn't have to do all the shopping.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
From these few examples it should be clear that the
negative<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>not</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>again attaches
itself to the auxiliary verb (modal or main) that comes immediately after the
subject of the sentence.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ought to:<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
It is usually claimed that the meaning of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>ought to</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is the same as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>should</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>whether it refers to
giving advice or making a logical deduction. So, to most native speakers the
following sentences with<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>ought to</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<em>should</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>feel the same:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You ought to see a doctor.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You should see a doctor.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">They ought to have got back home by now.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">They should have got back home by now.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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In practice, most speakers tend to prefer<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>should</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>for negatives and
questions because the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>ought to</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and <em>oughtn't ... to</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>forms can sound rather clumsy and awkward.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ought you to be doing that?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">They oughtn't to (ought not to) do that.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Oughtn't we to leave now?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .1in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-size: 14.0pt;">Meanings of modal verbs:<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The main function of modal verbs is to allow the speaker or
writer to express their opinion of, or their attitude to, a proposition. These
attitudes can cover a wide range of possibilities including<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>obligation, asking for and giving permission, disapproval,
advising, logical deduction, ability, possibility, necessity, absence of
necessity</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and so on. The problem with each modal verb is that it can
have more that one meaning and the interpretation of a particular modal will
depend heavily on the context in which it is being used. The following examples
should help to illustrate this point.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">It might take more than a week.
(possibility)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You might have told me about it!
(showing disapproval)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He must take his medicine three times a
day. (obligation)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He must be French. (logical deduction)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I can't lift that suitcase by myself.
(ability)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">That can't be the right answer. (logical
deduction)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">May I look at the questions now? (asking
for permission)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">They say it may snow tomorrow.
(possibility)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
You probably also noticed from the examples that notions
like<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>permission</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>possibility</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>can be expressed
using different modal verbs - this, of course, only serves to complicate
matters further since one modal verb can have more than one meaning, and one
meaning can be expressed by more than one modal verb. In the space that we have
available here it would be impossible to cover all the meanings of each of the
modals, so as examples we will look at some of the ways that<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>obligation</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>logical deduction</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>can be expressed.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Obligation:<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The two main modals here are<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>must</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>have to</em>. The difference
between them is usually given as follows:<em>must</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is used to express an internal obligation that is imposed
by the speaker, while<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>have to</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>refers to rules and regulations that are imposed from
outside the speaker. Again, as with many points of grammar this is only
intended as a rough guide.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
To express a lack of obligation we cannot just
automatically add<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>not</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>to the modal verbs without thinking more carefully about it
first. How do you feel about the following sentences for instance?<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He must sing loudly.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He mustn't sing loudly.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
In the first sentence you would probably agree that this is<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>obligation</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>originating from, say,
a teacher or someone with authority. The second sentence, however, does not
express a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>lack of obligation</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>but a <em>prohibition to do something</em>.
The form that we use to express a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>lack of obligation</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>could be one of the following:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He doesn't have to get up early.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He doesn't need to get up early.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
This lack of
balance in the use of modals can cause many problems for people who are
learning English since it is quite illogical.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Logical deduction:<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
This is another
area of modal use that is fraught with difficulties for reasons similar to
those just discussed above. Look at the following sentences:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b>The telephone rings:</b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">That'll be Frank.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">That must be Frank.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">That should be Frank.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">That could be Frank.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">That might be Frank.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">That may be Frank.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The modal verbs
used here have been listed in what many consider to be the order of likelihood
of something being true. You may or may not agree with this listing, but it
gives you some idea of some of the choices available for drawing logical
conclusions from situations. If we look at the negatives of these sentences,
however, you can see just how much more complex it can become:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">That won't be Frank.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">* That mustn't be Frank.<br />
(To use</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">musn't</span></i></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">in this way as logical deduction is
incorrect; we use</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">can't</span></i></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">instead.)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">That shouldn't be Frank.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">That couldn't be Frank.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">That mightn't be Frank.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Many of these sentences now denote completely different
attitudes to the situation and you may even agree that some of them are either
not English or are only marginally acceptable. The sentence which has probably
moved furthest from its original intention is the second one (mustn't) which
sounds very odd. In fact, the negative of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>must</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>when we talking
about deduction is<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>can't</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>- one more example of how complicated and counter-intuitive
the system of English modals can be.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Past time with modals:<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
We noted earlier that the pure modals do not change to show
tense. Most of these modals do in fact have either present or future reference,
but sometimes we need to refer back to the past. With the semi-modals there is
little problem, but how can we do this for pure modal verbs? You may have
picked up from some of the previous examples that one way to do this is to
insert<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>have</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>immediately after
the pure modal. But this is not always the case since<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>can</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>has its own past
tense<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>could</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>when it refers to
general ability. Some examples should help:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I can speak German.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">I could speak German when I was seven
years old.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You should see this film.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">You should have seen this film.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Indonesia must be hot.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Indonesia must have been hot.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He could find his wallet.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">He could have found his wallet.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Notice that in the third pair of sentences the meaning of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>must</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is logical deduction
not obligation. If we want to use<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>must</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>for obligation then the past tense is<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>had to</em>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">She
must visit her mother.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">She
had to visit her mother.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<h1 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .1in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #bd0f11; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></h1>
<h1 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .1in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: #17365d; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; line-height: 115%;">Conditional sentences:<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The most common kind of conditional sentence that you are
likely to meet will contain two clauses, one of which will start with the word<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>if</em>, as in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>If it rains, we'll have to stay at home.</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>The clause without the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>if</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is the main clause
of the sentence, while the i<em>f</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>clause is subordinate. The order of the two clauses is
generally not that important to the meaning of the sentence; so we can switch
the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>if</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>clause to the end of
the sentence if we want to.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Most grammar books tend to recognise four basic
configurations of tenses in conditional sentences which vary in structure
according to the time that we are talking about (past, present or future) and
the meaning. These four types are normally referred to as the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>zero, first, second</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>third conditionals</em>; we will
look at the forms and meanings of each of these in turn and also examine some
of the alternatives to these four basic types.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .1in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-size: 12.0pt;">Zero-type
conditionals<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>Form and meaning</em><o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The form of the
zero conditional causes no problems since the present tenses are used in both
clauses.<o:p></o:p></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 597px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background: #FAFAFA; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 448.1pt;" width="597"><h4 align="center" style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Zero-type
conditionals<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 164.6pt;" width="219"><h4 style="margin-top: 0in;">
<em><span style="color: navy; font-size: 12.0pt; font-style: normal; line-height: 115%;">If</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">clause<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 283.5pt;" width="378"><h4 style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Main or conditional clause<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 164.6pt;" width="219"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ Present tense</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 283.5pt;" width="378"><div style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: justify;">
Present tense</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 164.6pt;" width="219"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If you heat water</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 283.5pt;" width="378"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>it boils.</em></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The zero conditional is normally used to talk about<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>facts and to express general truths.</em><o:p></o:p></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .1in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-size: 12.0pt;">First-type
conditionals<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>Form and meaning</em><o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The basic form
for this type of conditional sentence can be seen in the chart below. As
before, the order of the clauses can be changed with no change in meaning.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
This type refers to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>future possibilities that are certain or probable.</em><o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em><br /></em></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 597px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background: #FAFAFA; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 448.1pt;" width="597"><h4 align="center" style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">First-type
conditionals<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 164.6pt;" width="219"><h4 style="margin-top: 0in;">
<em><span style="color: navy; font-size: 12.0pt; font-style: normal; line-height: 115%;">If</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">clause<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 283.5pt;" width="378"><h4 style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Main or conditional clause<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 164.6pt;" width="219"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ Present tense</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 283.5pt;" width="378"><div style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 1.95pt; text-align: justify;">
Future tense</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 164.6pt;" width="219"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If they don't arrive
soon</em></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If they are late</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 283.5pt;" width="378"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>We’ll leave without
them.</em></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>I'm going to be
angry.</em></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
You will note that on the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>if</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>side of the sentence
any present tense can be used, while in the main clause the speaker is free to
choose any future that helps to express any additional meaning that the speaker
wants to express.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If he's sleeping, he won't wake up until morning.</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(The Present Continuous in the first part of the sentence
expresses the present temporary nature of the situation and the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>will</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in the second part
is making a prediction about the future.)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>Alan is going to post me the recipe, if he finds it.</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(In the first clause I am expressing Alan's intention so<em>going to</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is the best future
to use, while the second clause contains a Simple Present tense.)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If he's staying at the party, I'm leaving.</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(In the first clause I am thinking about the possible
current state of affairs, so I choose the Present Continuous, while in the
second I am referring to the future plan that I have in mind should he decide
to stay, so again I choose the Present Continuous.)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If you have finished the essay, leave it on my desk.</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(By using the Present Perfect tense in the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>if</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>clause I am
stressing the completed nature of the action, while in the second clause I have
used an imperative, which has a future meaning.)<o:p></o:p></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .1in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-size: 12.0pt;">Second-type
conditionals<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>Form and meaning</em><o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
This type is often called the hypothetical or 'unreal'<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>future</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>conditional since it
is usually<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>used to speculate about either very unlikely future situations or
present and future impossibilities.</em><o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em><br /></em></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 609px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background: #FAFAFA; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 457.1pt;" width="609"><h4 align="center" style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Second-type
conditionals<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 218.6pt;" width="291"><h4 style="margin-top: 0in;">
<em><span style="color: navy; font-size: 12.0pt; font-style: normal; line-height: 115%;">If</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">clause<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 238.5pt;" width="318"><h4 style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Main or conditional clause<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 218.6pt;" width="291"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ Past tense</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 238.5pt;" width="318"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>would</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ verb</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 218.6pt;" width="291"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If I had time</em></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If I had wings</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 238.5pt;" width="318"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>I would drop you off
at school.</em></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>I would fly.</em></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Other examples
are:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">If
you were coming with us, you would have a great time</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
(Either I am not expecting you to come or you have already told me that you do
not intend to come, so the situation is very unlikely to happen.)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">I'm
sure my mother would help if you asked her.</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">(I am unsure whether you are going to
ask so I hedge my bets by using an 'unreal' conditional; if I had used</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">I'm
sure my mother will help</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">instead,
this gives the impression that I feel you are likely to ask.)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">If
I were you, I'd call back later.</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">(This
is a fixed expression used for giving advice, but since I can never be you, I
use the future hypothetical conditional; you should note that many people would
say</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">if I was you</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">and this is becoming increasingly
common.)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .1in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-size: 12.0pt;">Third-type
conditionals<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>Form and meaning</em><o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
This type refers to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>hypothetical situations</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>past</em>. In this case we use the Past Perfect tenses in the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>if</em>clause and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>would</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>have</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in the main clause.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 609px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background: #FAFAFA; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 457.1pt;" width="609"><h4 align="center" style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Third-type
conditionals<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 223.1pt;" width="297"><h4 style="margin-top: 0in;">
<em><span style="color: navy; font-size: 12.0pt; font-style: normal; line-height: 115%;">If</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">clause<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 3.25in;" width="312"><h4 style="margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: navy; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Main or conditional clause<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 223.1pt;" width="297"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ Past Perfect
tense</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 3.25in;" width="312"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>would have</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ past participle</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid gray 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 223.1pt;" width="297"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If I had known about
his condition</em></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If we had known about
the storm</em></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid gray 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid gray 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid gray .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid gray .5pt; padding: 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt 2.6pt; width: 3.25in;" width="312"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>I would have phoned
for you earlier.</em></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.95pt; margin-right: 1.95pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>we wouldn't have
started our journey.</em></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The main uses of
the third conditional are for speculating about the past, expressing regrets,
excusing our own actions and criticizing others. Some of the uses tend to
overlap in practice as the examples below demonstrate:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">If
we'd taken the first turning, we would have been at home by now.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">If
I'd bought the lottery ticket, we would have won millions.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">If
I'd realised you were going to be so sensitive, I'd have kept quiet.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The
meeting would've finished before</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">1:00</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">if
you'd said less.</span></em><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
There is one
other major variation to the form given in the chart above; in place of the
more usual<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If I had known about his condition...</em><o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
we can use<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>Had I known about his condition...</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>where the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>if</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is omitted and the subject and auxiliary verb are inverted.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .1in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: #17365d; font-size: 14.0pt;">Mixed conditionals<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The four types
of conditional sentence discussed above appear to fit into very rigid patterns
of form and meaning but we often find exceptions to these rules. In many cases
we may want to talk about events that happened or did not happen in the past
and the present results of those events. Therefore, we will often need to mix
clauses from different conditional types in order to get our meaning across
clearly and unambiguously. Taking one example from above, we might want to say:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<em>If I'd bought the lottery ticket, we would be millionaires now.</em><o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
In this sentence I want to refer to something that I did
not do in the past (and probably regret) and the possible effect that this
action might have had on the present - so I use a third-conditional<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>if</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>clause and a
second-conditional main clause. Swapping around these two types we also get:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">If
he was going to come, he would have arrived by now</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">(with a second-conditional</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt;">if</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">clause and a third-conditional main).<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 2.4pt 0.0001pt 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
</div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
This kind of
mixing of conditional types is not uncommon.<o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-35328433412546196272013-09-28T12:20:00.001+06:002013-10-11T12:44:13.958+06:00Elements of Poetry<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">POETRY ASSUMPTIONS</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Readers of poetry often
bring with them many related assumptions:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">That a poem is to be read for its "message,"<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">That this message is "hidden" in the poem,<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The message is to be found by treating the words as
symbols which naturally do not mean what they say but stand for something
else,<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">You have to decipher every single word to appreciate
and enjoy the poem.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">There are no easy ways to dispel these biases. Poetry is difficult
because very often its language is indirect. But so is experience - those
things we think, feel, and do. The lazy reader wants to be told things and
usually avoids poetry because it demands commitment and energy. Moreover, much
of what poetry has to offer is not in the form of hidden meanings. Many poets
like to "play" with the sound of language or offer an emotional
insight by describing what they see in highly descriptive language. In fact,
there can many different ways to enjoy poetry; this reflects the many different
styles and objectives of poets themselves. For an overview of the many ways to
read a poem. Finally, if you are the type to give up when something is unclear,
just relax! Like we just said, there can be many different approaches to
examining poetry; often these approaches (like looking for certain poetic
devices or examining the meaning of a specific phrase) do not require a
complete and exhaustive analysis of a poem. So, enjoy what you <u>do</u> understand!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
<b>FIRST APPROACHES</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Read the poem (many students neglect this step). Identify the speaker
and the situation. Feel free to read it more than once! Read the sentences
literally. Use your prose reading skills to clarify what the poem is about. Read
each line separately, noting unusual words and associations. Look up words you
are unsure of and struggle with word associations that may not seem logical to
you. Note any changes in the form of the poem that might signal a shift in
point of view. Study the structure of the poem, including its rhyme and rhythm
(if any). Re-read the poem slowly, thinking about what message and emotion the
poem communicates to you.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">STRUCTURE and POETRY</span></b><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><br />
</span><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">An important
method of analyzing a poem is to look at the stanza structure or style of
a poem. Generally speaking, structure has to do with the overall organization
of lines and/or the conventional patterns of sound. Again, many modern poems
may not have any identifiable structure (i.e. they are free verse), so don't
panic if you can't find it!<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>STANZAS</b>: Stanzas are a series of lines grouped together and separated by
an empty line from other stanzas. They are the equivalent of a paragraph in an
essay. One way to identify a stanza is to count the number of lines. Thus:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">couplet (2 lines)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tercet (3 lines)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">quatrain (4 lines)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">cinquain (5 lines)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">sestet (6 lines) (sometimes it's called a sexain)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">septet (7 lines)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">octave (8 lines) <o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
FORM</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">: A poem may
or may not have a specific number of lines, rhyme scheme and/or metrical
pattern, but it can still be labeled according to its form or style. Here
are <b>the three most common types of poems</b> according to form:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">1.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">
Lyric Poetry:</span></span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> It is any poem
with one speaker (not necessarily the poet) who expresses <b>strong
thoughts and feelings</b>. Most poems, especially modern ones, are lyric
poems. </span><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><br />
<b><span style="color: red;">2. Narrative Poem:</span></b></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> It is a poem
that <b>tells a story</b>; its structure resembles the plot line of a
story [i.e. the introduction of conflict and characters, rising action, climax
and the denouement].<br />
<br />
</span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">3. Descriptive Poem:</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> It is a poem that <b>describes the world</b> that
surrounds the speaker. It uses elaborate imagery and adjectives. While
emotional, it is more "outward-focused" than lyric poetry, which is
more personal and introspective. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">In a sense, almost all poems, whether they have consistent patterns of sound and/or structure, or are free verse, are in one of the three categories above. Or, of course, they may be a combination of 2 or 3 of the above styles! Here are some more types of poems that are sub-types of the three styles above:</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Ode:</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> It is usually a <b>lyric</b> poem of moderate length, with a serious subject, an elevated style, and an elaborate stanza pattern.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Elegy:</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> It is a <b>lyric</b> poem that mourns the dead. [It's not to be confused with a </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">eulogy</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.]It has no set metric or stanzaic pattern, but it usually begins by reminiscing about the dead person, then laments the reason for the death, and then resolves the grief by concluding that death leads to immortality. It often uses "apostrophe" (calling out to the dead person) as a literary technique. It can have a fairly formal style, and sound similar to an ode.</span></div>
</div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">
<br />
</span><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Sonnet:</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: red;"> </span>It
is a <b>lyric</b> poem consisting of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">14 lines</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> and, in the English version, is usually written in iambic
pentameter. There are two basic kinds of sonnets: the Italian (or Petrarchan)
sonnet and the Shakespearean (or Elizabethan/English) sonnet. The
Italian/Petrarchan sonnet is named after Petrarch, an Italian Renaissance poet.
The Petrarchan sonnet consists of an octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six
lines). The Shakespearean sonnet consists of three quatrains (four lines each)
and a concluding couplet (two lines). The Petrarchan sonnet tends to divide the
thought into two parts (argument and conclusion); the Shakespearean, into four
(the final couplet is the summary).<br />
<br />
</span><span style="color: red;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Ballad:</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">It is a <b>narrative</b> poem that has
a musical rhythm and can be sung. A ballad is usually organized into quatrains
or cinquains, has a simple rhythm structure, and tells the tales of ordinary
people.<br />
<br />
</span><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Epic:</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> It is a long <b>narrative</b> poem
in elevated style recounting the deeds of a legendary or historical
hero. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 191;">Qualities of an Epic Poem:<span style="color: #17365d;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">narrative poem of great
scope; dealing with the founding of a nation or some other heroic
theme requires a dignified theme requires an organic
unity requires orderly progress of the action always has a heroic
figure or figures involves supernatural forces<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">written in deliberately
ceremonial style<br />
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Other types of poems
include:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Haiku:</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> It has an <b>unrhymed</b> verse
form having </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">three line</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">s</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (a tercet) and usually 5,7,5 <b>syllables</b>,
respectively. It's usually considered a lyric poem.<br />
<br />
</span><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Limerick:</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> It
has a very structured poem, usually humorous & composed of </span><span style="color: #000099; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">five lines</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (a cinquain), in an <b>aabba</b> rhyming pattern; beat
must be <b>anapestic</b> (weak, weak, strong) with 3 feet in lines 1,
2, & 5 and 2 feet in lines 3 & 4. It's usually a narrative poem based
upon a short and often ribald anecdote.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5633394921043680644" name="sound"></a><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">SOUND PATTERNS</span></b><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Three other elements of poetry are <b>rhyme scheme</b>, <b>meter</b> (i.e.
regular rhythm) and <b>word sounds</b> (like alliteration). These are
sometimes collectively called <b>sound play</b> because they take
advantage of the per formative, spoken nature of poetry.<br />
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5633394921043680644" name="rhyme"></a><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">RHYME<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rhyme is the repetition
of similar sounds. In poetry, the most common kind of rhyme is the <b>end
rhyme</b>, which occurs at the end of two or more lines. It is usually identified
with lower case letters, and a new letter is used to identify each new end
sound. Take a look at the rhyme scheme for the following poem:<br />
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">I saw a fairy in
the </span></i><b><i><span style="color: #006600; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">wood</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">,<br />
He was dressed all in </span></i><b><i><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">green</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.<br />
He drew his sword while I just</span></i><i><span style="color: #006600; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> <b>stood</b></span></i><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">,<br />
And realized I'd been </span></i><b><i><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">seen</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.<br />
</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">The rhyme scheme of the
poem is </span><b><span style="color: #006600; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">a</span></b><b><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">b</span></b><b><span style="color: #006600; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">a</span></b><b><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">b</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Internal rhyme</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> occurs
in the middle of a line, as in these lines from Coleridge, "In mist or cl</span><b><span style="color: #006600; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">oud</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, on mast or shr</span><b><span style="color: #006600; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">oud</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">" or "Whiles
all the n</span><b><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ight</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> through fog-smoke wh</span><b><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ite</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">" ("The Ancient Mariner"). Remember that most
modern poems do <b>not </b>have rhyme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">NOTE</span></b><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">: <b>Rhy<u>me</u></b> (above)
and <b>rhy<u>thm</u></b> (below) are two totally different
concepts!<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5633394921043680644" name="rhythm"></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">RHYTHM AND METER</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Meter</span></b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: the systematic regularity in rhythm; this <u>systematic</u> rhythm
(or sound pattern) is usually identified by examining the <b>type</b> of
"foot" and the <b>number</b> of feet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">1. Poetic Foot:</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> The traditional line of metered poetry contains a number of
rhythmical units, which are called <b>feet</b>. The feet in a line are
distinguished as a recurring pattern of <b>two or three syllables</b>("apple"
has 2 syllables, "banana" has 3 syllables, etc.). The pattern, or
foot, is designated according to the <b>number</b> of syllables
contained, and the <b>relationship</b> in each foot between the
strong and weak syllables.Thus:<br />
<br />
__ = a stressed (or strong, or <b>LOUD</b>) syllable<br />
U = an unstressed (or </span><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">weak</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, or </span><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">quiet</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">) syllable<br />
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">In other words, any line
of poetry with a systematic rhythm has a certain number of feet, and <b>each
foot </b>has <b>two or three syllables</b> with a <b>constant
beat pattern</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. </span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Iamb (Iambic) - weak syllable
followed by strong syllable. [Note that the pattern is sometimes fairly hard
to maintain, as in the third foot.]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b.</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Trochee (Trochaic):
strong syllable followed by a weak syllable.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. </span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Anapest (Anapestic): two weak
syllables followed by a strong syllable.<br />
<br />
<b>e.g.<br />
In her </b></span><b><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">room</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> at the </span></b><b><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">prow</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> of
the </span></b><b><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">house</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
Where light </span></b><b><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">breaks</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, and the </span></b><b><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">win</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">dows are </span></b><b><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tossed</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">...</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
<br />
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 191;">From "The Writer", by Richard Wilbur<span style="color: #17365d;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d.</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Dactyl (Dactylic): a
strong syllable followed by two weak syllables.<br />
<br />
<b><br />
Here's another (silly) example of dactylic rhythm.<br />
</b></span><b><span style="color: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">DDD</span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> was an / </span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ar</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">cher, who /</span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> shot </span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">at a / </span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">frog</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span></b><b><span style="color: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">DDD</span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> was a / </span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">butch</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">er,
and / </span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">had</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> a great / </span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dog</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span></b><b><span style="color: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">DDD</span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> was a / </span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">cap</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">tain, all / </span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">cov</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">ered with / </span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">lace</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span></b><b><span style="color: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">DDD</span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> was a / </span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">drunk</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">ard,
and / </span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">had</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> a red / </span></b><b><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">face</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. </span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Spondee (Spondaic): two
strong syllables (not common as lines, but appears as a foot). A spondee
usually appears at the end of a line.<br />
<br />
<b><br />
2. The Number of Feet</b>: The second part of meter is the number of feet
contained in a line.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Thus:<br />
one foot=monometer<br />
two feet=dimeter<br />
three feet=trimeter<br />
four feet=tetrameter<br />
five feet=pentameter<br />
six feet=hexameter (when hexameter is in iambic rhythm, it is called an
alexandrine)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Poems with an identifiable meter are therefore identified by the
type of feet (e.g. iambic) and the number of feet in a line (e.g.
pentameter). The following line is iambic pentameter because it (1) has
five feet [<b>pent</b>ameter], and (2) each foot has two syllables with the
stress on the second syllable [iambic].<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">That <b>time</b> |
of <b>year</b> | thou <b>mayst</b> | in <b>me</b> |
be<b>hold</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Thus, you will hear meter identified as iambic pentameter,
trochaic tetrameter, and so on.<br />
<br />
<b><br />
3. Irregularity:</b> Many metered poems in English avoid perfectly regular
rhythm because it is monotonous. Irregularities in rhythm add interest and
emphasis to the lines. In this line:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">The first foot substitutes a trochee for an iamb. Thus, the basic
iambic pentameter is varied with the opening trochee.<br />
<br />
<b>4. Blank Verse:</b> Any poetry that <b><u>does</u> have</b> a </span><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">set metrical pattern (usually iambic
pentameter)</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, but<b>does <u>not</u> have</b> </span><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">rhyme</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, is blank verse. Shakespeare frequently used unrhymed iambic
pentameter in his plays; his works are an early example of blank verse.<br />
<b>5. Free Verse:</b> <u>Most modern poetry no longer follows strict rules
of meter <b>or</b> rhyme</u>, especially throughout an entire poem.
Free verse, frankly, has no rules about meter <b>or</b> rhyme
whatsoever! [In other words, blank verse <b>has</b> rhythm, but <b>no</b> rhyme,
while free verse has <b>neither</b> rhythm <b>nor</b> rhyme.]
So, you may find it difficult to find regular iambic pentameter in a modern
poem, though you might find it in particular lines. Modern poets do like to
throw in the occasional line or phrase of metered poetry, particularly if
they’re trying to create a certain effect. Free verse can also apply to a lack
of a formal verse structure.<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">How do I know if a poem has meter? How do I determine the
meter?</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">To
maintain a consistent meter, a poet has to choose <b>words that fit</b>.
For example, if a poet wants to write iambic poetry, s/he has to choose words
that have a naturally iambic rhythm. Words like be<b>tray</b>and per<b>suade</b> will
work in an iambic poem because they are naturally iambic. They sound silly any
other way. However, <b>can</b>dle and <b>mus</b>cle will work best in
a trochaic poem, because their natural emphasis is on the first syllable.
(However, a poet can use trochaic words if s/he places a one syllable word in
front of them. This often leads to poetic feet ending in the middle of words -
after one syllable - rather than the end.) It's not surprising that most modern
poetry is not metered, because it is very restrictive and demanding.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Determining
meter is usually a process of elimination. Start reading everything in <b>iambic</b> by
emphasizing every second syllable. 80 to 90% of metered poetry is iambic. If it
sounds silly or strange, because many of the poem's words do not sound natural,
then try trochaic, anapestic or dactylic rhythms. If none of these sounds
natural, then you probably do not have metered poetry at all (ie. it's free
verse).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">If
there are some lines that sound metered, but some that don't, the poem has an <b>irregular</b> rhythm.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5633394921043680644" name="words"></a><b>WORD SOUNDS<br />
</b><br />
Another type of sound play is the emphasis on individual sounds and words:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Alliteration</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">:
the repetition of initial sounds on the same line or stanza - <b>B</b>ig <b>b</b>ad <b>B</b>ob <b>b</b>ounced <b>b</b>ravely.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Assonance</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">: the repetition of<b> vowel</b> sounds
(anywhere in the middle or end of a line or stanza) - T<b>i</b>lting at w<b>i</b>ndm<b>i</b>lls<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Consonance</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">: the repetition of consonant sounds (anywhere
in the middle or end of a line or stanza) - And a<b>ll</b> the air a so<b>l</b>emn
sti<b>ll</b>ness ho<b>l</b>ds. (T. Gray)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Onomatopoeia</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">: words that sound like that which they describe
- <b>Boom! Crash! Pow! Quack! Moo!Caress...<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Repetition</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">: the repetition of
entire lines or phrases to emphasize key thematic ideas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span><span style="color: #990000; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Parallel Stucture</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">: a form of repetition where the order of verbs
and nouns is repeated; it may involve exact words, but it more importantly
repeats sentence structure - "I came, I saw, I conquered".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #17365d; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 191;"><br /></span></b>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5633394921043680644" name="meaning"></a><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 191;">MEANING and POETRY</span></b><span style="color: #17365d; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 191;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">I said earlier that poetry is not always about hidden or indirect
meanings (sometimes called <b>meaning play</b>). Nevertheless, if often is
a major part of poetry, so here some of the important things to remember: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
<b>CONCRETENESS and PARTICULARITY</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">In general, poetry deals with particular things in concrete
language, since our emotions most readily respond to these things. From the
poem's particular situation, the reader may then generalize; the generalities
arise by implication from the particular. In other words, a poem is most often
concrete and particular; the "message," if there is any, is general
and abstract; it's implied by the images.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Images, in turn, suggest meanings beyond the mere identity of the
specific object. Poetry "plays" with meaning when it identifies
resemblances or makes comparisons between things; common examples of this
"figurative" comparison include:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ticking of clock = mortality<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">hardness of steel = determination <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">white = peace or purity<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Such terms as connotation, simile, metaphor, allegory, and symbol
are aspects of this comparison. Such expressions are generally called <b>figurative</b> or
metaphorical language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">DENOTATION AND
CONNOTATION</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Word meanings are not only restricted to dictionary meanings. The
full meaning of a word includes both the dictionary definition and the special
meanings and associations a word takes in a given phrase or expression. For
example, a tiger is a carnivorous animal of the cat family. This is the literal
or </span><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">denotative</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> meaning. But we have certain associations
with the word: sinuous movement, jungle violence, and aggression. These are the
suggestive, figurative or </span><span style="color: darkred; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">connotative</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> meanings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 191;">FIGURATIVE/CONNOTATIVE DEVICES</span></b><span style="color: #17365d; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 191;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Simile</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is the rhetorical term used to designate the most
elementary form of resemblances: most similes are introduced by
"like" or "as." These comparisons are usually between
dissimilar situations or objects that have something in common, such as "My
love is like a red, red rose."<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A <b>metaphor</b> leaves
out "like" or "as" and implies a direct comparison
between objects or situations. "All flesh is grass." <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Synecdoche</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is a form of metaphor, which in mentioning an
important (and attached) part signifies the whole (e.g. "hands"
for labour).<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Metonymy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is similar to synecdoche; it's a form of metaphor
allowing an object closely associated (but <u>unattached</u>) with an
object or situation to stand for the thing itself (e.g. the crown or
throne for a king or the bench for the judicial system).<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A <b>symbol</b> is
like a simile or metaphor with the first term left out. "My love is
like a red, red rose" is a simile. If, through persistent
identification of the rose with the beloved woman, we may come to
associate the rose with her and her particular virtues. At this point, the
rose would become a symbol.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Allegory</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> can be defined as a one to one correspondence
between a series of abstract ideas and a series of images or pictures
presented in the form of a story or a narrative. For example, George
Orwell's <i>Animal Farm</i> is an extended allegory that
represents the Russian Revolution through a fable of a farm and its
rebellious animals.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Personification</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> occurs when you treat abstractions or inanimate
objects as human, that is, giving them human attributes, powers, or
feelings (e.g., "nature wept" or "the wind whispered many
truths to me").<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Irony</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> takes many forms. Most basically, irony is a
figure of speech in which actual intent is expressed through words that
carry the opposite meaning.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<ul type="disc">
<ul type="circle">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Paradox: usually a literal contradiction of terms or
situations<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Situational Irony: an unmailed letter<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dramatic Irony: audience has more information or
greater perspective than the characters<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Verbal Irony: saying one thing but meaning another<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<ul type="square">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Overstatement (hyperbole)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Understatement (meiosis)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sarcasm<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
</ul>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Irony may be a positive or negative force. It is most valuable as
a mode of perception that assists the poet to see around and behind opposed
attitudes, and to see the often conflicting interpretations that come from our
examination of life. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 191;">POETRY AS A LANGUAGE OF INDIRECTION</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Thus, if we recognize that much of the essential quality of our
experience is more complex than a simple denotative statement can describe,
then we must recognize the value of the poet's need to search for a language
agile enough to capture the complexity of that experience. Consider this
four-line stanza:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">O Western wind, when
wilt thou blow<br />
That the small rain down can rain?<br />
Christ, that my love were in my arms,<br />
And I in my bed again!</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">The center of the poem is the lover's desire to be reunited with
his beloved (lines 3 and 4). But the full meaning of the poem depends on the
first two lines also. Obviously, the lover associates his grief with the wind
and rain, but the poet leaves to implication, to indirection, just how the
lover's situation and the wind and rain are related. We note that they are
related in several ways: the need for experiencing and manifesting love is an
inherent need, like nature's need for rain; in a word, love, like the wind and
rain, is natural. Secondly, the lover is living in a kind of drought or arid
state that can only be slaked by the soothing presence of the beloved. Thirdly,
the rising of the wind and the coming of the rain can neither be controlled nor
foretold exactly, and human affairs, like the lover's predicament, are subject
to the same sort of chance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5633394921043680644" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><br /></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Undoubtedly, too, there are associations with specific words, like
"Western" or "small rain" that the reader is only half
aware of but which nonetheless contribute to meaning. These associations or
connotations afford a few indirections that enrich the entire poem. For
example, "small rain" at once describes the kind of rain that the
lover wants to fall and suggests the joy and peace of lover's tears, and "small"
alone might suggest the daintiness or femininity of the beloved.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-86948758951803871292013-09-25T17:58:00.000+06:002017-10-31T12:30:44.084+06:00The Elephant – Slawomir Mrozek<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">The Elephant </span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">–
<i>Slawomir Mrozek<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEPwFs4lNrFH7qA208U4S083wvyFW5lqJbMFOnY6hF31kDwxAt0Xe5BM4MsDR6pPMdWDzDyCrBm7hd8pNvCcdO_UBhdOXRbFXvMVrRpY-p8rYHlMOJIZIiQcIhW8K-pWt0mDWiY_FbuZw/s1600/download.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEPwFs4lNrFH7qA208U4S083wvyFW5lqJbMFOnY6hF31kDwxAt0Xe5BM4MsDR6pPMdWDzDyCrBm7hd8pNvCcdO_UBhdOXRbFXvMVrRpY-p8rYHlMOJIZIiQcIhW8K-pWt0mDWiY_FbuZw/s1600/download.jpg" width="218" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">At the <b><i>Surface
level</i></b>, ‘The Elephant’ is a simple story about how a small polish zoo
attempts to cut costs by fabricating an elephant, rather than adding real
elephant to the Zoo’s collection. But at another level, ‘The Elephant’ is <b>satirical
allegory</b>. This is aimed at the communist government that controlled Poland
at the time the story was written (1958).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Genre:
</span></i></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Contemporary
realistic fiction</span><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">with traditional political features.</span><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Language</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: </span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Contemporary.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Technical
device</span></i></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:
Satirical allegory.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Theme:</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Deception
and its repercussions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Conflict:</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Man
versus Man, Man versus State.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Setting:</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Zoo
in Poland/<b> </b>A provincial town in communist Poland.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<strong><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Type of Plot:</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fable, allegory, satire.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<strong><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Principal
Characters:</span></i></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The director, a party of schoolchildren, teacher.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 2in; text-indent: -2in;">
<b><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Point
of View:</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
third-person omniscient narrative focuses on the ambitious and self-serving
director of the Zoological Gardens in a provincial Polish town.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Satire</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:
Literary works those critics/ridicules human follies, institutions, government
by depicting it in a humorous, sarcastic, or scornful way. The purpose of
satire is often to teach a lesson or encourage change.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Or<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A
literary mode based on criticism of people and society through ridicule. The
satirist aims to reduce the practices attacked by laughing scornfully at
them--and being witty enough to allow the reader to laugh, also. Ridicule,
irony, exaggeration, and several other techniques are almost always present.
The satirist may insert serious statements of value or desired behaviour, but
most often he relies on an implicit moral code, understood by his audience and
paid lip service by them. The satirist's goal is to point out the hypocrisy of
his target in the hope that either the target or the audience will return to a
real following of the code. Thus, satire is inescapably moral even when no
explicit values are promoted in the work, for the satirist works within the
framework of a widely spread value system. Many of the techniques of satire are
devices of comparison, to show the similarity or contrast between two things. A
list of incongruous items, an oxymoron, metaphors, and so forth are examples<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Allegory</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: An
allegory is a simple story, such as a fable or parable, whose major purpose is
to teach a moral lesson. An allegory can always be read on two levels – one
literal, the other symbolic. The underlying meaning can be parallel to, but
different from, the surface meaning.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Or<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A figurative
work in which a surface narrative carries a secondary, symbolic or metaphorical
meaning.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Or<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Allegory</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">is a form of extended</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/metaphor.html"><span style="color: black;">metaphor</span></a><span class="apple-style-span">, in which objects, animals, persons, and actions in a
narrative, are equated with the meanings that lie outside the narrative itself.
The underlying meaning has moral, social, religious, or political significance,
and characters are often </span><a href="http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/personification.html"><span style="color: black;">personifications</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">of abstract ideas as charity,
greed, or envy.</span> <span class="apple-style-span">Thus an allegory is a story with two meanings, a literal
meaning and a</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/symbol.html"><span style="color: black;">symbolic</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">meaning. Such a tale is said to be didactic in its style.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Point of View: </span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
third-person omniscient narrative focuses on the ambitious and self-serving
director of the Zoological Gardens in a provincial Polish town.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Third Person
Omniscient:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This
style is often frowned upon, and comes under fire from many writing style
authorities. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Third person omniscient is not to be confused with using
multiple viewpoints. A writer can have multiple viewpoints in a piece of
fiction and can be writing in third person without using third person omniscient. </span><b style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Third person omniscient is an older narrative</b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><b style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">style
in which a single viewpoint contains all characters and perspectives</b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
key point to remember in using third person omniscient narration is
consistency. Narrative shifts shouldn't happen randomly; they should have a
sense of order and rhythm that remains consistent throughout the story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Points
to Remember about “The Elephant”:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
Slawomir Mrozek, the author of this story, is a Polish dramatist and
short-story writer<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
‘Elephant’ is a contemporary realistic fiction and a beautiful satirical
(political) allegory.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
this story is satirizing the then communist government of Poland.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
the story has two levels of meaning – the textual meaning creating lots of humour
and the symbolic meaning criticizing the corrupt officials and the government.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
the author is the ‘narrator’ in this story and the story has been written in
‘third person point of view’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
‘Deception and its effects’ and ‘criticizing the corrupt officials and
highlighting the corrupt system and government’ are the most prominent themes
of this story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
a small zoological garden in the provincial town of Poland is the setting of
this story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
‘the director vs his selfish motives’ is the internal conflict in this story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
‘the director vs other employees in the zoo’ and ‘the state vs the people’ are
the prominent external conflicts in this story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
‘Satire’ is a form of literary work which intends to criticize or ridicule the
mistakes, wrongdoings and follies of a person, society or institution in a
humorous and sarcastic manner with a positive intention to bring in some
positive change by creating awareness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
an ‘Allegory’ is a story or visual image with a parallel and distinct second
meaning hidden behind its literal or visible meaning. ‘Personification’ is the
principal technique used in this kind of writing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">SUMMARY<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Surface level:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
This third-person omniscient narrative focuses on the
ambitious and self-serving director of the Zoological Gardens in a provincial
Polish town. The zoo is substandard in this communist society in which
appearances mean everything and in which major inadequacies are overlooked
because they would, if articulated, reflect badly on the bureaucracy governing
the country.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
story starts with a description of the zoo director. "He regards his
animals simply as stepping stones of his career. He is careless about the
educational value of his establishment." Being in a remote town the zoo is
not funded and therefore was "lacking all the important animals". On
the anniversary of the liberation of Poland, the zoo was informed that it was
receiving an elephant. The staffs of the zoo were very happy but they were
surprised that their director was preparing a plan for am more economical
elephant. The director had written a letter to the higher authority suggesting
an economical elephant made of rubber. Thus, money can be saved to buy a jet
plane or to conserve some church monuments. His letter was officially sanctioned
and the ministry had approved the idea.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The director
began the preparation of the rubber elephant.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
director, who has 3000 rabbits but no elephant, thinks the most important thing
is his promotion in his career. So he thinks it doesn’t matter what children
are affected by their seeing a spurious elephant. He orders the zoo keepers to
blow air into a rubber elephant and to make it as if a real one. He, who was
indifferent to educational importance and cared about only his own career,
planned to make an elephant out of rubber instead of having a real elephant for
saving the cost significantly. He thought that they could fill it with air and
place it behind the railings, and that nobody would notice it was not real
because elephants are sluggish animals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">The elephant’s rubber carcass is filled
with air by the two keepers who ‘blow into it from opposite ends’ locking
themselves up in the shed, in the secrecy of the night air</span></span><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">;
however, they could not make it big enough to look like a real elephant. They
got exhausted and came up with an idea that they can fill it with gas and they
did. The zoo keepers regarded their duties in a purely bureaucratic manner and
do not examine the heart of the matter, but followed only the directives of
their superior. <span class="apple-style-span">The director
insisted on haste as he was expecting a bonus, should the idea succeed.
Moreover, the people of the town had been informed that an elephant was joining
the Zoo the following day.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In the morning, the rubber elephant is placed in a central
position next to the monkey cage. Particularly sluggish, Hardly moves”
proclaimed a notice. A party of children escorted by the teacher in-charge was
amongst the first of the zoo’s visitors that morning. An object lesson about
the elephant had been planned by the teacher. As the object lesson proceeded,
the children took notes ‘with enraptured admiration’. The elephant did not
budge to obey to the dictates of all its mammalian characteristics deemed by
the children and the teacher. What astonished the children and the monkeys more
was that the supposedly ‘nine and thirteen thousand pounds’ largest living land
animal began to take flight as a gust of wind propelled it above the ground.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">The descendant of the now-extinct
mammoth lay punctured on a cactus in the neighbouring botanical garden. </span></span><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
children who witnessed the scene turned into hooligans and <span class="apple-style-span">started to neglect their
studies. The story ends with a sad note: "And they no longer believe in
elephants."</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">As a Satirical
allegory:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
story exposes the corrupt communist government and its officials in Poland. It
reveals the struggle between the citizens and the policies of communist regime.
‘The Elephant’ can be termed as a satire on the follies of the communist
government. It indirectly criticizes the drawbacks of communism and the
policies implemented in Poland after the Second World War<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Elephant is a satirical short story
about life under a totalitarian regime. A</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><span class="yellowfadeinnerspan"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">totalitarian</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><span class="yellowfadeinnerspan"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">regime</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">is a government which controls every
aspect of the life of the people. People living under a</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><span class="yellowfadeinnerspan"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">totalitarian</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><span class="yellowfadeinnerspan"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">regime</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">generally also support it, sometimes
almost cultishly. Citizens are also usually afraid to criticize the government,
so they may be outspoken supporters to avoid closer scrutiny. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
elephant fabricated by the director of the Zoo symbolizes the manifesto of the
communist government. Like the elephant the communist government is also
beautiful when seen from outside with its almost utopian principles to provide
everyone equality. But deep within the politicians themselves are corrupt and
lead to the destruction of the state. These officials feel that they could fool
the public by replicating the “real thing” but in reality they are only making
fool out of themselves.<span class="apple-style-span"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span>
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mrozek's short fiction satirizes the Polish mentality, romantic
heroism and grandiloquence, or the oddities of the Communist system, but his
main target is the human behavior, human follies. In 'The Elephant' Mrozek
parodied didactic tales. The director of the Zoological Gardens wants to reduce
the costs of the establishment. He orders an elephant made out of rubber.
Unluckily, it is filled with gas. Next morning children from a school visit the
zoo. The teacher tells that "the weight of a fully grown elephant is
between nine and thirteen thousand pounds." A gust of wind blows the
elephant away.</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Communism
has brought only atrocities and corruption into Poland. It hasn’t brought
relief to the majority as promised, nor has it ended oppression as purposed.
The metaphorical symbol in the story symbols in the story gives us clear image
of the leaders holding the absolute monopoly in power and thus using forces to
keep it concealed. The underlying meaning attached to the different abnormal
animals in the zoo could be a way to symbolize their acts – the short necked
giraffe can be the officials cut off from seeing what exactly the communist
politicians were up to. The badgers, who have lost their burrows, could be the
officials who have lost their post for going against their leaders. The
whistlers could be the revolutionist or the critics, who wanted to bring out
the truth of the politicians but reluctantly whistled, because of their lives
at stake. These short comings shouldn’t have been allowed especially as the zoo
was often visited by school children.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
communist manifesto looks attractive and magnificent from outside, the way it
is designed but internally it is hallow just like the rubber elephant which was
inflated with air. The zoo represents the country, animals, and the defective
policies of the government. The director represents the corrupt officials who
are manipulative, self centered and least bothered about the well-being,
sentiments and feelings of the innocent people. They were selfish and concerned
about their own career rather than the welfare of the state.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
two keepers represent the lower working class. These innocent people have to
carry out their duties according to the whims and fancies of the higher
officials; they were also involved in the corruption and manipulation of the
government policies.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
children represent the innocent citizens who have a lot of faith in the
government as per the promises made in the communist manifesto. However, when
they know the reality and motives of the government they are enraged, become
violent and turn against the government.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 4.5pt;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Symbolism
used in “The Elephant”:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 31.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid black; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid black; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.4pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Sl. No.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.7pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">LITERAL TERMS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.3pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">SYMBOLIC MEANING<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.4pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.7pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
zoo<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.3pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
country Poland<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.4pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.7pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
Director of the Zoo<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.3pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Representing
the communist government of Poland<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.4pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.7pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Animals
with different problems /deficiencies in the zoo<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.3pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Government
policies having defect and weakness of various kinds/<o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">The underlying meaning attached to the different abnormal animals in the zoo could be a way to symbolize their acts – the short necked giraffe can be the officials cut off from seeing what exactly the communist politicians were up to. The badgers, who have lost their burrows, could be the officials who have lost their post for going against their leaders. The whistlers could be the revolutionist or the critics.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.4pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.7pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
school children<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.3pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"> The common innocent people of the country<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.4pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">5<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.7pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
Elephant<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.3pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
constitution, the manifesto or the policy of the Polish communist government<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.4pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">6<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.7pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
flying Elephant<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.3pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
deceiving and deception involved in the government’s manifestos and policies<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.4pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">7<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.7pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
officials<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.3pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
corrupted officials in the communist government working foolishly<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.4pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">8<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.7pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
two zoo keepers<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.3pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
corrupted officials who support their boss blindly and irrationally<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.4pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">9<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.7pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
teacher<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.3pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">The
innocent victim of a corrupt system<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.4pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">10<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.7pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Misbehaving
students<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.3pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Anger
of the common men coming out in various violent manners <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Conflicts
(Plot):<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Internal</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
The Director versus
his own self and selfish motives.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">External</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
The state versus
people, the Director versus other employees in the zoo, the students versus
teacher and school are some of the examples of external conflicts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Justification of the Title:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The title story is a good example -- story of a
zookeeper who, to save money and make himself look better to higher officials,
buys an inflatable elephant for the zoo instead of a live animal. The workers
inflating it with air switch to filling it with gas to save time, and
predictably, it floats away during the first day of exhibition. A suitable
story must be found to explain so as not to embarrass any party officials. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This story is a satirical and political allegory
criticizing the follies and corrupt functioning of the then communist
government in Poland. In this story every character is symbolical. For any
country or for any form of government the constitution, the policies and the
manifestos are the set of supreme law for governing the country effectively and
judiciously. And the author’s main
intention is to satirize the manifesto and the policies of the government
through this story which he does by using the symbol of the ‘Elephant’ as
elephant is the symbolic representative of the manifestos and policies. Thus
being satirical and being allegorical nothing could be better and more suitable
title then ‘The Elephant’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Theme:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Deception and its repercussions emerge
as the central themes of the story, especially the conflict of the state versus
its people. The zoo is substandard in this communist society in which
appearances mean everything and in which major inadequacies are overlooked
because they would, if articulated, reflect badly on the bureaucracy governing
the country. The moral of The Elephant
by Slawomir Mrozek is that cutting corners and lying will have far reaching
consequences in the world.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Being a satirical allegory ‘The Elephant’ deals at
two parallel levels of meaning and understanding – one at the very surface and
textual level and the other at its symbolical level. On the surface level and
from textual point of view creating humour and comedy appears to be the main
theme of this story. But when we delve deep into its meaning at symbolical
level then we come across a different and very serious theme in this story.
Symbolically the story criticizes the then corrupt and communist government of
the country at large. Every character in this story is symbolically connected
with something in the government or the country. So criticizing the government,
its faulty manifestos and policies, and the corrupt officials working mindlessly
is the main theme of this interesting story. Besides, creating awareness about
the corruption among the common mass of the country and highlighting the
follies and wrongdoing of the government and officials could be considered as
its additional theme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Study questions
and answers:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What
are some of the specialities of the zoological garden in the provincial town?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This
zoological park is located in a provincial town of Poland. The park does not
have so many animals such as badger, giraffe, elephant etc. And those animals
which are there in the park are having many shortcomings and drawbacks. Many
animals in the park are made of rubber.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With
what intention did the Director write a letter to Warsaw? <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Director wrote the letter to Warsaw regarding the allocation of an elephant in
the zoo. His intention was to forward a plan to obtain an elephant by more
economic means. That is why he proposed to have a rubber elephant with
appropriate size and colour. He sent this proposal with a satisfaction that he
was contributing to his country in reducing the expenditure and use the saved
money for some better purpose and cause for the country.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What
did they plan to address the problem of immobility of the elephant?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Very
cleverly but stupidly at the same time they decided to put a board declaring
the elephant particularly lazy and sluggish which hardly moved.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Director’s proposal was promptly approved. What does it symbolize?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This
event simply symbolizes that not only the Director but even the superior officers
and authorities were equally incompetent and stupid. They approved the proposal
without analysing it properly. They did not even bother for the impact of such
stupidity on the common men and children who used to frequent the park for
educational purpose.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">5.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“The
Director of the Zoological Garden is not at all worthy of the post.” Explain
the statement with supportive argument from the story.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">From
the very beginning of the story its evidently clear that the Director does not
bother for anything else except his own benefit and promotion. Animals in the
zoo are just the stepping stones on his way to success. This zoological garden
is particularly meant for educational purpose but the Director is totally
indifferent to this purpose and cause. He always thinks how to get promotion
and bonus. For him educational purpose or society or children do not matter.
Thus it’s very much clear that he was not worthy of the post.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">6.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Explain
the symbolical significance of ‘Rubber elephant filled with gas’.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
this story everything is symbolically used with a satirical intent in order to
criticize something else at the political front. The rubber elephant filled
with gas symbolically represents the artificial existence of fake and deceiving
laws and manifestos of the communist government of Poland. It also symbolises
the hollowness of these manifestos having very weak substantiality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com43tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-84203160448466446862013-09-25T17:56:00.002+06:002013-10-11T12:45:38.222+06:00ARGUMENTATIVE/PERSUASIVE ESSAY and SHORT STORY WRITING TIP<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="Section1">
<div align="center" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">ARGUMENTATIVE/PERSUASIVE ESSAY WRITING TIP<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Definition:
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
this kind of essay, we not only give information but also present an argument
with the PROS (supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative
issue. We should clearly take our stand and write as if we are trying to
persuade an opposing audience to adopt new beliefs or behavior. The primary
objective is to persuade people to change beliefs that many of them do not want
to change.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Choosing
an argumentative topic is not an easy task. The topic should be such that it
should be narrowed down<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">X</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Marijuana
should be considered illegal. (Not a good topic because it is too general. In
some medical cases, marijuana is prescribed by the doctors and the patients are
encouraged to use it in case of suffering from too much pain)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">√</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Selling and
using marijuana in public places should be considered illegal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">It should contain an argument<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">X</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> We should
decide whether we want a bicycle or a car. (our stand is not clear: do we
support having bicycles or cars?)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">√</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> If we are under
the age of 30 and want a healthy life, we should definitely get a bicycle
instead of a car.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">X</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Are you one of
those who thinks cheating is not good for students? (a question cannot be an
argument)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">√</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Cheating helps
students learn.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">X</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Considering its
geological position, Turkey has an important geopolitical role in the EU. (Facts
cannot be arguments)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">√</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Considering its
geopolitical role, we can clearly say that the EU cannot be without Turkey.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">It should be a topic that can be adequately
supported (with statistics, outside source citations, etc.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">X</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> I feel that
writing an argumentative essay is definitely a challenging task. (Feelings
cannot be supported; we cannot persuade other people)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">If you believe that you can find enough
evidence to support your idea and refute others effectively, you can choose
challenging topics as well. You can enjoy writing about such topics:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">
Cheating is beneficial for students.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">
Stress is good for the human body.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">
Polygamy is quite natural.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">
For women, there is no need for men.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">
Abortion is a Crime.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Organization</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: All
argumentative topics have PROs and CON’s. Before starting writing, it is
imperative to make a list of these ideas and choose the most suitable ones
among them for supporting and refuting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">There
are three possible organization patterns:
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Pattern
1:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</div>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="Section2">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Thesis statement:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">PRO
idea 1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> PRO idea 2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> CON(s) + Refutation(s)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</div>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="Section3">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Pattern
2:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Thesis
statement:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="Section4">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> CON(s) + Refutation(s)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> PRO idea 1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> PRO idea 2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</div>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="Section5">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Pattern
3:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Thesis statement:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> CON idea 1 -----> Refutation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> CON idea 2 -----> Refutation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> CON idea 3 -----> Refutation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The sample essay has been written according to the
third pattern.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Thesis:
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Do
Reiki instead of taking medicine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Counter
arguments:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Refutation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">1.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">People
should trust medicine since it is effective and scientifically proven.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">-----><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Reiki
is also scientifically proven and does not have side effects. (refutation
method: insufficient claim)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Serious
illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and cancer cannot be treated without medicine.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">-----><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Medicine
also cannot treat serious illnesses if not diagnosed at an early stage.
(refutation method: opponents are partially correct)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">3.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Reiki,
like alternative healing methods, requires a lot of time.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">-----><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Reiki
requires less time if done regularly. (Refutation method: opponents are
completely wrong)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Supporting
our ideas: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This
is the most important part when persuading others. We are asking some people to
change their beliefs or actions. We should be supporting our ideas with such
facts, statistics and/or authorities that there should not be room for any
doubts. Here are some faulty supports we should avoid:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Thesis:
Leaving the university and starting to work is good for the adolescent because
…<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Feelings,
emotional arguments (… it makes one feel much better.)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Irrelevant
examples (wandering off the topic) (… he would then be able to take his
girlfriend to expensive restaurants.)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Oversimplification
(… only then would he understand what it means to be an adult.)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Hasty
generalizations (... it is a widely known fact that all adolescents look
forward to earning money.)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Unreliable,
even false outside sources (… according to www.doubtme.com, 80% of working men
wish they quit school when they were at university and started working at an
earlier age.)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Refuting
opposing arguments: Before we start saying that the opponents are wrong, we
should specify their opposing ideas. Otherwise, it would be like hitting the
other person with eyes closed. We should see clearly what we are hitting and be
prepared beforehand so that he cannot hit us back. We can do this by knowing
what we are refuting.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">E.g.
X Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education;
however, they are wrong. (What they say is not wrong. Maybe their supporting
idea is wrong /irrelevant /insufficient. We should state their supporting idea
specifically to be able to refute it.)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">√ Some
people may say that adolescents should not leave university education because
they are not physically and psychologically mature enough to cope with the
problems of the real world. However, they forget one fact: adolescents can vote
or start driving at the age of 18 (in some countries even before that age!),
which proves that they are considered physically and psychologically mature at
that age.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Language:
Signposts gain importance in the argumentative essay. They enable the readers
to follow our arguments easily.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">When
pointing out opposing arguments (CONs):<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Opponents
of this idea claim / maintain that …
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Those
who disagree / are against these ideas may say / assert that …<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Some
people may disagree with this idea.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">When
stating specifically why they think like that:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
put forward this idea because …<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">They
claim that … since …<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Reaching
the turning point:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">However<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">but<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">On
the other hand<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">When
refuting the opposing idea, we may use the following strategies:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">compromise
but prove that their argument is not powerful enough:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">They
have a point in thinking like that.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">To
a certain extent they are right.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">completely
disagree:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">After
seeing this evidence, there is no way we can agree with what they say.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Say
that their argument is irrelevant to the topic:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What
we are discussing here is not what they are trying to prove.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Their
argument is irrelevant.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Sample
argumentative essay:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">HEALTH AND HEALING AT YOUR FINGERTIPS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Throw out the bottles and boxes of drugs
in your house. A new theory suggests that medicine could be bad for your
health, which should at least come as good news to people who cannot afford to
buy expensive medicine. However, it is a blow to the medicine industry, and an
even bigger blow to our confidence in the progress of science. This new theory
argues that healing is at our fingertips: we can be healthy by doing Reiki on a
regular basis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Supporters of medical treatment argue
that medicine should be trusted since it is effective and scientifically
proven. They say that there is no need for spiritual methods such as Reiki,
Yoga, and Tai Chi. These waste our time, something which is quite precious in
our material world. There is medicine that can kill our pain, x-rays that show
us our fractured bones or MRI that scans our brain for tumors. We must admit
that these methods are very effective in the examples that they provide.
However, there are some “every day complaints” such as back pains, headaches,
insomnia, which are treated currently with medicine. When you have a headache,
you take an Aspirin, or Vermidon, when you cannot sleep; you take Xanax without
thinking of the side effects of these. When you use these pills for a long
period, you become addicted to them; you cannot sleep without them. We pay huge
amounts of money and become addicted instead of getting better. How about a
safer and more economical way of healing? When doing Reiki to yourself, you do
not need anything except your energy so it is very economical. As for its
history, it was discovered in Japan in the early 1900s and its popularity has
spread particularly throughout America and Western Europe. In quantum physics, energy is recognized as
the fundamental substance of which the universe is composed. Reiki depends on
the energy within our bodies. It is a simple and effective way of restoring the
energy flow. There are no side effects and it is scientifically explained.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Opponents of alternative healing methods
also claim that serious illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and cancer cannot be treated
without drugs. They think so because these patients spend the rest of their
lives in the hospital taking medicine. How can Reiki make these people healthy
again? It is very unfortunate that these patients have to live in the hospital
losing their hair because of chemotherapy, losing weight because of the side
effects of the medicine they take. Actually, it is common knowledge that except
for when the cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, drugs also cannot treat
AIDS or cancer. Most of the medicines these patients use are to ease their pain
and their sufferings because of the medical treatment they undergo. Instead of
drugs which are expensive and have many side effects, you can use your energy
to overcome the hardships of life, find an emotional balance, leave the stress
of everyday life and let go of the everyday worries. Most of the chronic
conditions such as eczema or migraine are known to have causes such as poor
diet and stress. Deep-rooted anger or other strong emotions can contribute to
viral infections as well. Since balancing our emotions and controlling our
thoughts are very important for our well-being, we should definitely start
learning Reiki and avoid illnesses before it is too late. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Some people may still maintain that in
our material world, everything depends on time. It is even “lacking time” that
causes much of the stress that leads to the illnesses we mentioned. How would
it be possible to find time to do Reiki to ourselves and the people around us
when we cannot even find time to go to the theater? This is one good thing
about Reiki; it does not require more than 15 minutes of our time. There is no
need for changing clothes or special equipment. It is a wonderfully simple
healing art, an effective method of relaxation and stress-relief. Most
important of all, it is less time consuming than medicine if we think of all the
time we spend taking medicine for some complaints and taking some more for the
side effects as well.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Having said these, resistance to Reiki
would be quite illogical. Reiki is natural and drug-free. What is more, it is
easy to learn by anyone, regardless of age and experience. It can be used
anywhere, anytime. It also enhances physical, mental, emotional and spiritual
well-being and the benefits last a lifetime. It is definitely high time to get
away from the drug boxes we store in our drug cabinet!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Tips: Persuasive or argumentative
essays<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In persuasive or argumentative writing,
we try to convince others to agree with our facts, share our values, accept our
argument and conclusions, and adopt our way of thinking.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Elements toward building a good persuasive
essay include establishing facts to support an argument clarifying relevant
values for your audience (perspective) prioritizing, editing, and/or sequencing
the facts and values in importance to build the argument forming and stating
conclusions "persuading" your audience that your conclusions are
based upon the agreed-upon facts and shared values having the confidence to
communicate your "persuasion" in writing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Here
are some strategies to complete a persuasive writing assignment:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Write out the questions in your own
words. Think of the questions posed in the assignment while you are reading and
researching. Determine<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Facts any sources that will help you
determine their reliability (as well as for further reference) what prejudices
lie in the argument or values that color the facts or the issue what you think
of the author's argument List out facts; consider their importance: prioritize,
edit, sequence, discard, etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Ask yourself "What's missing?"
What are the "hot buttons" of the issue? List possible emotions/emotional
reactions and recognize them for later use<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Start writing a draft! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Start as close as possible to your
reading/research. Do not concern yourself with grammar or spelling<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Write your first paragraph:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Introduce
the topic<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Inform
the reader of your point of view!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Entice
the reader to continue with the rest of the paper!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Focus
on three main points to develop. Establish flow from paragraph to paragraph<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Keep
your voice active<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Quote
sources to establish authority<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Stay
focused on your point of view throughout the essay<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Focus
on logical arguments<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Don't
lapse into summary in the development--wait for the conclusion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Summarize, and then conclude, your
argument. Refer to the first paragraph/opening statement as well as the main
points<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• does
the conclusion restate the main ideas?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• reflect
the succession and importance of the arguments<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• logically
conclude their development?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Edit/rewrite the first paragraph to
better telegraph your development and conclusion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Take a day or two off!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Re-read your paper with a fresh mind and
a sharp pencil<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Ask
yourself:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Does this make sense? Am I convinced? Will
this convince a reader? Will they understand my values, and agree with my
facts?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Edit,
correct, and re-write as necessary<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Check
spelling and grammar!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Have
a friend read it and respond to your argument.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Were they convinced?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Revise
if necessary<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Turn
in the paper<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Celebrate
a job well done, with the confidence that you have done your best.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Short Story Writing Tips<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">1. <b>Collect ideas for your story.</b>
Inspiration can strike at any time, so carry a notepad with you wherever you go
so that you can write down story ideas as they come to you.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Most of the time, you’ll just think of
small snippets of information (a catastrophic event around which you can build
a plot, a character’s name or appearance, etc.), but sometimes you’ll get lucky
and a whole story will reveal itself to you in a couple of minutes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">If you have trouble finding inspiration,
or if you need to write a story in a hurry (for a class, for example), learn
how to brainstorm or if you can't come up with any ideas you might have to look
to family and friends for inspiration.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Experience usually helps to build good
plots. Many of Isaac Asimov's mysteries came from experience of certain
incidents.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2. <b>Begin with basics of a short story</b>.
After you've chosen an idea, you need to remember the basics of a short story
before writing one. Steps to a good short story are:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Introduction: introduces characters,
setting, time, weather, etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Initiating
action:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">
The point of a story that starts
the rising action.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Rising
action: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Events leading
up to the climax or turning point.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Climax:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> The most intense point or
turning point of the story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Falling
action:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">
Your story begins to conclude.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Resolution: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A satisfying ending to the story in which the
central conflict is resolved—or not! You don't have to write your short story
in order. If you have an idea for a great conclusion, write it down. Move
backward or forward from your starting idea (it may or may not be the beginning
of the story), and ask “What happens next?” or “What happened before this?”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">3. <b>Find inspiration from real people.</b> If
you have trouble understanding or finding attributes of a character, turn to
your life. You can easily borrow attributes of people you know or even
strangers you notice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">For example, you might notice someone is
always drinking coffee, they talk in a loud, booming voice, they are always
typing away at the computer, etc. All of these observations would together make
a very interesting character. Your character can even blend attributes of a
number of people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">4. <b>Know your characters</b>. For a story to be
believable, the characters have to feel genuine and realistic. It can be a
difficult task to create interesting and realistic characters. But here are a
few strategies to create "real people" to populate your story: Write
a list, titled with the character's name, and write all the attributes you can
think of, from their position in the orchestra to their favorite color. Know as
much as possible about your characters, from what their central motivations are
to what their favorite foods are. Do they talk with an accent? Do they have any
quirky mannerisms? You won’t include all this information in your story, but
the more you know, the more your characters will come to life, both for you and
for the reader.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Make sure your characters' personalities
are not perfect. Every character needs to have some flaws, some problems, some
imperfections, and some insecurity. You might assume that people wouldn't like
to read about a character with a lot of flaws, but that couldn't be farther
from the truth. Batman wouldn't be The Dark Knight if he weren't a borderline
sociopath!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">People can relate to characters with
problems, as that's realistic. When trying to come up with flaws, you don't
need to give your character some huge, bizarre issue (although you definitely
can). For most characters, try to stick with things you know about. For
example, the character could have anger issues, be afraid of water, be lonely,
dislike being around other people, smoke too much, etc. All of these could be
taken further in development.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">5. <b>Limit the breadth of your story</b>. A
novel can occur over millions of years and include a multitude of subplots, a
variety of locations, and an army of supporting characters. The main events of
a short story should occur in a relatively short period of time (days or even
minutes), and you typically won’t be able to develop effectively more than one
plot, two or three main characters, and one setting. If your story has much
more breadth, it probably needs to be a novella or novel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">6. <b>Decide who will tell the story.</b> There
are three main points of view from which to tell a story: first-person (“I”),
second-person (“you”), and third-person (“he” or “she”). In a first-person
story, a character in the story tells the story; in the second-person the
reader is made a character in the story; and in the third-person, an outside
narrator tells the story. (Second-person narration is rarely used.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Keep in mind that first-person narrators
can only tell what they know (which will be limited to what they see firsthand
or are told by others), while third-person narrators can either know everything
and explore every character’s thoughts, or be limited to only that which can be
observed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">You can also mix-and-match. For example,
you could switch between a first-person narrative in one chapter, and
third-person in another, or even have more than one first-person point of view.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">7. <b>Organize your thoughts.</b> After you've
prepared the basic elements of your story, it can be helpful to do out a
time-line in some way to help you decide what should happen when.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Your story should consist at least of an
introduction, initiating incident, rising action, climax, falling action, and
resolution. You can draw or write a visual with very simple descriptions of
what should happen in each of these stages. Having this done will help you keep
focused when writing the story, and you can easily make changes to it, so that
you are able to keep a steady flow as you write the full story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">8. <b>Start writing.</b> Depending on how
thoroughly you’ve sketched out your plot and characters, the actual writing
process may simply be one of choosing the right words.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Generally, however, writing is arduous.
You probably won’t know your characters and plot as well as you thought, but it
doesn’t matter—in a sense, they will tell you what they need, even if you paint
them into a corner. Plus, there's always the second draft!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">9. <b>Come out swinging.</b> The first page—some
would say the first sentence—of any writing should grab the reader’s attention
and leave him/her wanting more.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A quick start is especially important in
short stories because you don’t have much room to tell your story. Don’t
dillydally with long introductions of the characters or uninteresting
descriptions of the setting: get right into the plot, and reveal details about the
characters and setting piece-by-piece as you go along.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">10. <b>Keep writing.</b> You’re almost certain to
hit some bumps in the road to finishing your story. You’ve got to work through
them, though. Set aside a time to write each and every day, and make it a goal
to finish, say, a page each day. Even if you end up throwing away what you
wrote on that day, you’ve been writing and thinking about the story, and that
will keep you going in the long run.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Consider participating in writing groups
or activities. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">11. <b>Let the story "write itself".</b>
As you develop your story, you may want to turn your plot in a different
direction than you had planned, or you may want to substantially change or
remove a character. Listen to your characters if they tell you to do something different,
and don’t worry about scrapping your plans altogether if you can make a better
story as you go.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Second
Tip!<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">1. <b>Get
Started: Emergency Tips</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Is your short story assignment due
tomorrow morning? These emergency tips may help. Good luck!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• What
does your protagonist want?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">(The athlete who wants her team to win
the big game and the car crash victim who wants to survive are not unique or
interesting enough.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• When
the story begins, what morally significant actions has your protagonist taken
towards that goal?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">(“Morally significant” doesn’t mean
conventionally “good”; rather, your protagonist should already have made a
conscious choice that drives the rest of the story.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• What
unexpected consequences — directly related to the protagonist’s goal-oriented
actions — ramp up the emotional energy of the story?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">(Will the unexpected consequences force
your protagonist to make yet another choice, leading to still more
consequences?)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• What
details from the setting, dialog, and tone help you tell the story?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">(Things to cut: travel scenes, character
A telling character B about something we just saw happening to character A, and
phrases like “said happily” — it’s much better to say “bubbled” or “smirked” or
“chortled.”)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• What
morally significant choice does your protagonist make at the climax of the
story?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">(Your reader should care about the
protagonist’s decision. Ideally, the reader shouldn’t see it coming.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.
Write a Catchy First Paragraph<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In today’s fast-moving world, the first
sentence of your short story should catch your reader’s attention with the
unusual, the unexpected, an action, or a conflict. Begin with tension and
immediacy. Remember that short stories need to start close to their end.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> I heard my neighbor through the wall.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Dry
and uninteresting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> The neighbor behind us practiced
scream therapy in his shower almost every day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> The
second sentence catches the reader’s attention. Who is this guy who goes in his
shower every day and screams? Why does he do that? What, exactly, is “scream
therapy”? Let’s keep reading…<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> The first time I heard him, I stood
in the bathroom listening at our shared wall for ten minutes, debating the
wisdom of calling the police. It was very different from living in the duplex
over middle-aged Mr. and Mrs. Brown and their two young sons in Duluth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The rest of the paragraph introduces I
and an internal conflict as the protagonist debates a course of action and
introduces an intriguing contrast of past and present setting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">“It is important to understand the basic
elements of fiction writing before you consider how to put everything together.
This process is comparable to producing something delectable in the kitchen–any
ingredient that you put into your bowl of dough impacts your finished loaf of
bread. To create a perfect loaf, you must balance ingredients baked for the
correct amount of time and enhanced with the right polishing glaze.” -Laurel
Yourke<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">3.
Developing Characters<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Your job, as a writer of short
fiction–whatever your beliefs–is to put complex personalities on stage and let
them strut and fret their brief hour. Perhaps the sound and fury they make will
signify something that has more than passing value–that will, in Chekhov’s
words, “make [man] see what he is like.” -Rick Demarnus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In order to develop a living, breathing,
multi-faceted character, it is important to know way more about the character
than you will ever use in the story. Here is a partial list of character
details to help you get started.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="Section6">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Name<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Age<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Job<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Ethnicity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Appearance<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Residence • Pets<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Religion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Hobbies<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Single or married?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Children?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Temperament<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Favorite color<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Friends<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Favorite foods<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Drinking patterns<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Phobias<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Faults • something hated?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Secrets?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Strong memories?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Any illnesses?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Nervous gestures?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Sleep patterns<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Imagining all these details will help
you get to know your character, but your reader probably won’t need to know
much more than the most important things in four areas:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Appearance:
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Gives your reader a visual understanding
of the character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Action: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Show the reader
what kind of person your character is, by describing actions rather than simply
listing adjectives.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Speech: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Develop the
character as a person — don’t merely have your character announce important
plot details.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Thought: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Bring the reader
into your character’s mind, to show them your character’s unexpressed memories,
fears, and hopes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">For example, let’s say I want to develop
a college student persona for a short story that I am writing. What do I know
about her?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Her name is Jen, short for Jennifer Mary
Johnson. She is 21 years old. She is a fair-skinned Norwegian with blue eyes,
long, curly red hair, and is 5 feet 6 inches tall. Contrary to the stereotype
about redheads, she is actually easygoing and rather shy. She loves cats and
has two of them named Bailey and Allie. She is atechnical writing major with a
minor in biology. Jen plays the piano and is an amateur photographer. She lives
in the dorms at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. She eats pizza every
day for lunch and loves Red Rosetea. She cracks her knuckles when she is
nervous. Her mother just committed suicide.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">4<b>.
Choose a Point of View</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Point of view is the narration of the
story from the perspective of first, second, or third person. As a writer, you
need to determine who is going to tell the story and how much information is
available for the narrator to reveal in the short story. The narrator can be
directly involved in the action subjectively, or the narrator might only report
the action objectively.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">First Person: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The story is told from the view of “I.” The narrator
is either theprotagonist (main character) and directly affected by unfolding
events, or the narrator is a secondary character telling the story revolving
around the protagonist. This is a good choice for beginning writers because it
is the easiest to write.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> I
saw a tear roll down his cheek. I had never seen my father cry before. I looked
away while he brushed the offending cheek with his hand.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Second
Person: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The story is
told directly to “you”, with the reader as a participant in the action.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">You laughed loudly at the antics of the
clown. You clapped your hands with joy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Third Person: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The story tells what “he”, “she,” or “it” does. The
third-person narrator’s perspective can be limited (telling the story from one
character’s viewpoint) or omniscient (where the narrator knows everything about
all of the characters).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> He
ran to the big yellow loader sitting on the other side of the gravel pit shack.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Your
narrator might take sides in the conflict you present, might be as transparent
as possible, or might advocate a position that you want your reader to
challenge (this is the “unreliable narrator” strategy).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">First Person: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">“Unites narrator and reader through a series of
secrets” when they enter one character’s perceptions. However, it can “lead to
telling” and limits readers connections to other characters in the short story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Second Person:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> “Puts readers within the actual scene
so that readers confront possibilities directly.” However, it is important to
place your characters “in a tangible environment” so you don’t “omit the
details readers need for clarity.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 2.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -2.0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Third Person Omniscient:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Allows you to explore all of the characters’
thoughts and motivations. Transitions are extremely important as you move from
character to character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 2.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -2.0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 2.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -2.0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Third Person Limited: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">“Offers the intimacy of one
character’s perceptions.” However, the writer must “deal with character absence
from particular scenes.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">5.
Write Meaningful Dialogue<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Make your readers hear the pauses
between the sentences. Let them see characters lean forward, fidget with their
cuticles, avert their eyes, uncross their legs. -Jerome Stern<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Dialogue is what your characters say to
each other (or to themselves).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Each speaker gets his/her own paragraph,
and the paragraph includes whatever you wish to say about what the character is
doing when speaking. (See: “Quotation Marks: Using Them in Dialogue“.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> “Where are you going?” John cracked
his knuckles while he looked at the floor. “To the racetrack.” Mary edged
toward the door, keeping her eyes on John’s bent head. “Not again,” John stood
up, flexing his fingers. “We are already maxed out on our credit cards.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> The
above paragraph is confusing, because it is not clear when one speech stops and
the other starts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> “Where are you going?” John asked
nervously.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">“To the racetrack,” Mary said, trying to
figure out whether John was too upset to let her get away with it this time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">“Not again,” said John, wondering how
they would make that month’s rent. “We are already maxed out on our credit
cards.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> The
second example is mechanically correct, since it uses a separate paragraph to
present each speaker’s turn advancing the conversation. But the narrative
material between the direct quotes is mostly useless.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Write Meaningful Dialogue Labels<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">“John asked nervously” is an example of
“telling.” The author could write “John asked very nervously” or “John asked so
nervously that his voice was shaking,” and it still wouldn’t make the story any
more effective.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">How can the author convey John’s state
of mind, without coming right out and tellinig the reader about it? By
inference. That is, mention a detail that conjures up in the reader’s mind the
image of a nervous person.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> John sat up. “Wh– where are you
going?”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> “Where are you going?” John
stammered, staring at his Keds.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Deep breath. Now or never. “Where are
you going?”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> John sat up and took a deep breath,
knowing that his confrontation with Mary had to come now, or it would never
come at all. “Wh– where are you going?” he stammered nervously, staring at his
Keds.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Beware
— a little detail goes a long way.Why would your reader bother to think about
what is going on, if the author carefully explains what each and every line
means?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Let’s return to the first example, and
show how dialogue labels can affect the meaning of a passage.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> “Where are you going?” John cracked
his knuckles while he looked at the floor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">“To the racetrack.” Mary edged toward
the door, keeping her eyes on John’s bent head.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">“Not again,” John stood up, flexing his
fingers. “We are already maxed out on our credit cards.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> In
the above revision, John nervously asks Mary where she is going, and Mary seems
equally nervous about going.But if you play a little with the paragraphing..<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> “Where are you going?”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">John cracked his knuckles while he
looked at the floor. “To the racetrack.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mary edged toward the door, keeping her
eyes on John’s bent head. “Not again.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">John stood up, flexing his fingers. “We
are already maxed out on our credit cards.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> All
I changed was the paragraphing (and I changed a comma to a period.)Now Mary
seems more aggressive — she seems to be moving to block John, who seems nervous
and self-absorbed. And John seems to be bringing up the credit card problem as
an excuse for his trip to the racing track. He and Mary seem to be desperate to
for money now. I’d rather read the rest of the second story than the rest of
the first one.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">6.
Use Setting and Context<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Setting moves readers most when it
contributes to an organic whole. So close your eyes and picture your characters
within desert, jungle, or suburb–whichever setting shaped them. Imagining this
helps balance location and characterization. Right from the start, view your
characters inhabiting a distinct place. -- Laurel Yourke<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Setting includes the time, location,
context, and atmosphere where the plot takes place.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Remember
to combine setting with characterization and plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Include
enough detail to let your readers picture the scene but only details that
actually add something to the story. (For example, do not describe Mary locking
the front door, walking across the yard, opening the garage door, putting air
in her bicycle tires, getting on her bicycle–none of these details matter
except that she rode out of the driveway without looking down the street.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Use
two or more senses in your descriptions of setting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Rather
than feed your readers information about the weather, population statistics, or
how far it is to the grocery store, substitute descriptive details so your
reader can experience the location the way your characters do.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Our sojourn in the desert was an
educational contrast with its parched heat, dust storms, and cloudless blue sky
filled with the blinding hot sun. The rare thunderstorm was a cause for
celebration as the dry cement tunnels of the aqueducts filled rapidly with
rushing water. Great rivers of sand flowed around and through the metropolitan
inroads of man’s progress in the greater Phoenix area, forcefully moved aside
for concrete and steel structures. Palm trees hovered over our heads and
saguaro cactuses saluted us with their thorny arms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">7.
Set Up the Plot<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Plot is what happens, the storyline, the
action. Jerome Stern says it is how you set up the situation, where the turning
points of the story are, and what the characters do at the end of the story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A plot is a series of events
deliberately arranged so as to reveal their dramatic, thematic, and emotional
significance. -Jane Burroway<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Understanding these story elements for
developing actions and their end results will help you plot your next short
story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Explosion
or “Hook.” A thrilling, gripping, stirring event or problem that grabs the
reader’s attention right away.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Conflict.
A character versus the internal self or an external something or someone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Exposition.
Background information required for seeing the characters in context.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Complication.
One or more problems that keep a character from their intended goal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Transition.
Image, symbol, dialogue, that joins paragraphs and scenes together.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Flashback.
Remembering something that happened before the short story takes place.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Climax.
When the rising action of the story reaches the peak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Falling
Action. Releasing the action of the story after the climax.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• Resolution.
When the internal or external conflict is resolve.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Brainstorming.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> If you are
having trouble deciding on a plot, try brainstorming. Suppose you have a
protagonist whose husband comes home one day and says he doesn’t love her anymore
and he is leaving. What are actions that can result from this situation?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">1. She
becomes a workaholic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2. Their
children are unhappy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">3. Their
children want to live with their dad.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">4. She
moves to another city.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">5. She
gets a new job.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">6. They
sell the house.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">7. She
meets a psychiatrist and falls in love.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">8. He
comes back and she accepts him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">9. He
comes back and she doesn’t accept him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">10. She
commits suicide.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">11. He
commits suicide.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">12. She
moves in with her parents.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The next step is to select one action
from the list and brainstorm another list from that particular action.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">8.
Create Conflict and Tension<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Conflict is the fundamental element of
fiction, fundamental because in literature only trouble is interesting. It
takes trouble to turn the great themes of life into a story: birth, love, sex,
work, and death. -Janet Burroway<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Conflict produces tension that makes the
story begin. Tension is created by opposition between the character or
characters and internal or external forces or conditions. By balancing the
opposing forces of the conflict, you keep readers glued to the pages wondering
how the story will end.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Possible
Conflicts Include:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• The
protagonist against another individual<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• The
protagonist against nature (or technology)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• The
protagonist against society<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• The
protagonist against God<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• The
protagonist against himself or herself.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Conflict
Checklist<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mystery</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Explain just enough to
tease readers. Never give everything away.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Empowerment</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Give both sides options.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Progression</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Keep intensifying the number and
type of obstacles the protagonist faces.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Causality</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Hold fictional characters
more accountable than real people. Characters who make mistakes frequently pay,
and, at least in fiction, commendable folks often reap rewards.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Surprise</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Provide sufficient
complexity to prevent readers predicting events too far in advance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Empathy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Encourage reader
identification with characters and scenarios that pleasantly or (unpleasantly)
resonate with their own sweet dreams (or night sweats).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Insight</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Reveal something about
human nature.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Universality</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Present a struggle that most
readers find meaningful, even if the details of that struggle reflect a unique
place and time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">High Stakes</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Convince readers that the outcome
matters because someone they care about could lose something precious. Trivial
clashes often produce trivial fiction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">9.
Build to a Crisis or Climax:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This is the turning point of the
story–the most exciting or dramatic moment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The crisis may be recognition, a
decision, or a resolution. The character understands what hasn’t been seen
before, or realizes what must be done, or finally decides to do it. It’s when
the worm turns. Timing is crucial. If the crisis occurs too early, readers will
expect still another turning point. If it occurs too late, readers will get
impatient–the character will seem rather thick.-Jerome Stern<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Jane Burroway says that the crisis “must
always be presented as a scene. It is “the moment” the reader has been waiting
for. In Cinderella’s case, “the payoff is when the slipper fits.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">While a good story needs a crisis, a
random event such as a car crash or a sudden illness is simply an emergency
–unless it somehow involves a conflict that makes the reader care about the
characters.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The best explanation I’ve seen of the
difference between crisis and conflict comes from a Star Trek fan magazine I
read as a kid. I’m almost sure that the
author was David Gerrold. I’m
reconstructing most of it myself in order to make my point, but the examples he
gave were pretty stark and formulaic, along these lines:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">1. The
Enterprise encounters the slime monster.
It attacks the ship. (Crisis!)
Kirk kills it by freezing it. (Resolution)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2. The
Enterprise encounters the ice beast. It
attacks a peaceful planet. (Crisis!)
Kirk kills it by melting it. (Resolution)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">3. The
Enterprise encounters the crystal demon.
It attacks a strategic Federation base.
The only way to stop it is to shatter it with sound waves — but doing so
will deafen an entire city of the galaxy’s finest musicians. Doing nothing would mean that the Romulans
might occupy the planet, shatter the demon and deafen the city anyway. Kirk has to decide what to do. (Conflict!!)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The first two scenarios might be
exciting to watch. Imagine the screams
of the slime monster, the howls of the ice beast, the tension on the bridge as
the Enterprise closes in for the kill.
Sounds like fun, but it is only action, like a video game.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The last scenario has the same potential
for action, but in addition, it lends itself to introspection, to the
exploration of values, to the examination of choices. For example, we might see the tearful pleas
of the city dwellers, the belligerent boasting of the Romulans, and an argument
between Spock and McCoy. We might even see
the hero change in some way, too, as he tries to negotiate a moral path that
takes into account what all parties have at stake.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This is true dramatic conflict.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">10.
Find a Resolution:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The solution to the conflict. In short
fiction, it is difficult to provide a complete resolution and you often need to
just show that characters are beginning to change in some way or starting to
see things differently.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Yourke examines some of the options for
ending a story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Open. Readers determine the meaning.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Brendan’s eyes looked away from the priest and
up to the mountains.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Resolved: Clear-cut
outcome.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> While John watched in despair, Helen loaded up
the car with her belongings and drove away.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Parallel
to Beginning: Similar to
beginning situation or image.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> They were driving their 1964 Chevrolet Impala
down the highway while the wind blew through their hair.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Her father drove up in a new 1964 Chevrolet
Impala, a replacement for the one that burned up.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Monologue: Character comments.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">
I wish Tom could have known Sister Dalbec’s prickly guidance before the
dust devils of Sin City battered his soul.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Dialogue:
Characters
converse.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Literal
Image:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Setting or aspect of setting
resolves the plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> The aqueducts
were empty now and the sun was shining once more.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Symbolic
Image: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Details
represent a meaning beyond the literal one.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Looking up at
the sky, I saw a cloud cross the shimmering blue sky above us as we stood in
the morning heat of Sin City.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-71233883047598836912013-09-23T17:51:00.001+06:002015-10-07T10:07:12.317+06:00Episode in the Life of an Author by Jean Anouilh<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Episode
in the Life of an Author by Jean Anouilh<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></i></b>
<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Form: </span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> One Act Play<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Genre:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Drama<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sub-genre:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Absurdist farce (with features of the ‘theatre of the absurd’)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Author: </span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Jean Anouilh (Anh’ wee)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Nationality:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> French<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Gender: </span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Male<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Birth:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> June 23, 1910 Bordeaux, France<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Death:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> October 3, 1987 Lausanne, Switzerland<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">The play is classified by the author under:</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pieces roses</span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (theme explored with sparkling wit and comedy).<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">‘The play tries to substantiate the view that ‘the primary function of the theatre was, is and forever will be entertainment.’<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rhetorical Devices used in the play:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Satire, Irony, Symbols, Wit & Comedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Social values explored:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></div>
<div style="margin: 0px;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Love, Marital life (marriage), Friendship, Family bond, other relationships,jobs & ethics.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18.3999996185303px;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ABOUT
THE AUTHOR</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:</span></div>
</div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Jean Anouilh is a French dramatist. He is a
prominent writer of the modern theatre. His writings are very accurate but full
of humour and entertainment because he firmly believed that the all time
function of theatre is to provide pure entertainment without leaving any other
burden on the audience.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<br />
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18.3999996185303px;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
PLAY</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:</span></div>
</div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">‘Episode in the Life of an Author’ is a remarkable
play belonging to ‘The Theatre of Absurd’. It is a very good example of a low
grade comedy otherwise called ‘Farce’. This genre is basically light in its
approach and humorous in nature ultimately challenging the traditional
practices of focusing on plot, characters, themes, conflicts and all other
serious elements of the drama. In such work we often find the characters out of
harmony and in a chaotic state of affairs. It closely follows the philosophy of Existentialism: <o:p></o:p></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; line-height: 19.8400001525879px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">a philosophy that emphasizes individual existence, freedom and choice. It is the view that humans define their own meaning in life, and try to make rational decisions despite existing in an irrational universe.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18.3999996185303px;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Theatre
of absurd</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:</span></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The term is applied to a number of works in drama
and prose fiction which deals with the theme of absurdity in human life. Such
kind of literature commonly depicts the sense that the human condition is
extremely and essentially absurd. The followers of this genre further believe
that this condition can be adequately represented only in works of literature
that are themselves absurd. Both the mood and dramatic techniques of absurdity
were anticipated as early as 1896 in Alfred Jarry’s French Play Ubu roi (Ubu
the king). However the literature also has its roots in the movement that
emerged and became popular in France after the horrors of World War II, as a rebellion
against essential beliefs and values both of traditional culture and
traditional literature. Earlier belief was that human beings are fairly
rational creatures who live in an intelligible universe, that they are part of
an ordered social structure, and that they may be capable of heroism and
dignity even in defeat. After 1940s, however, there was a widespread tendency
to view human being as an isolated entity thrown into an unknown universe.
Their faiths were broken and they started believing that unlike the set beliefs
the earth did not possess any inherent truth value or meaning. Further they
concluded that life moves from nothingness from where it comes towards
nothingness where it must end. Thus they believed that human existence was both
anguished and absurd.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Important
Features of Absurd Drama</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:</span></span></b></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It
has unusual plot, theme, dialogues and actions which makes it different from
other traditional plays.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
events, actions are illogical, senseless, often useless, confusing, absurd and
totally beyond the understanding of the common audience.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Often
situations are funny absurd and often there is a lack of sequence of events<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
characters are often caught in a chaotic situation and find it very difficult
to understand its place in the universe. They are often confused and under lots
of meaningless pressures and tensions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Often
the inadequacy of language for communication is also exposed and it is shown
that language is an unreliable and insufficient tool of communicaiton<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Farce:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Farce is a type of comedy written with a sole
intention of provoking hearty laughter among the audience without weighing them
down with any other moral or ethical burden in the parlance of theatre. To do
so it commonly employs highly exaggerated or caricatured types of characters and
puts them into improbable and ludicrous situations. Besides it also makes free
use of sexual mix-ups, broad verbal humour, and physical bustle and horseplay.
Farce was a component in the comic episodes in medieval miracle plays. In the
enduring English drama, farce is usually an episode in a more complex form of
comedy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Theme
of the Play</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Keenly following the trends and techniques of the
theme of absurdity, the play deals with the theme of helplessness and confusion
of human beings in the modern world. The whole play appears to be full with
disorder, chaos and illogical sequence of events upon which none has any
control. The protagonist (the author) himself is deep in troubles from various
angles. And to worsen the matter further all other characters come to seek
solace and solution to their problems from the author. They all appear to be
very much dependent on the author they all want the author to solve their
problems and troubles.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Characters
of the play</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Author</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:Jacques, the French Dramatist
and the central character of the play.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Author’s wife (<b>Glothair</b>e: the
pet cat of Ardele).<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Madame
Bassarabo</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: A Rumanian journalist who
has come to interview the author about his play ‘La Marguerite’.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Photographer</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Madame
Bassarabo’s assistant.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Maid</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Leonie, the young house maid of
the author.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Two
Plumbers</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: they have come to repair the
leak of water pipe.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Mother</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Author’s mother asking him
to buy a new apartment<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Friend</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Gustave, a cine-script
writer and author’s close friend.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Woman on the Phone</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Madam <b>Pripon Minet</b> who always calls the
author misunderstanding him to be her first husband Leon. (<b>Leon</b>: the first husband of the lady
on phone i.e. Pripon Minet).<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 35.45pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">La Surette</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
A tramp (a person with no fixed home or occupation and who wanders from place
to place) and the close friend of the Author.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.8pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Housing Inspector</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
the Man in Black who is a government official and has come to check about the
improper occupation of the author’s house.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.8pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">12.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gontran</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
the friend of the author who has problem with his love and has come like others
to seek help from the author. (<b>Lea</b>:
the girlfriend of Gontran /<b>Lucienne</b>:
Gontran’s wife)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Characters
in Gustave’s Woman with the Boas:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="a">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Liliane
Tresor</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> : an actress<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Paul
Zed</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: the film producer-director of Gustave’s script‘The Woman with the Boas’.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bourbanski</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: for whom the film was supposed to be made.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary
of the play (plot)<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Episode
in the life of an Author” is a very good example of FARCE belonging to the
‘Theatre of Absurd’ written by Jean Anouilh, a French dramatist pursuing this
genre.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Author himself is the protagonist of the play
who has been subjected to chaotic situations where he finds it extremely
difficult to cope up and finally fails to bring any order in his life. The play
begins with a rather humorous scene in which the Author and his wife Ardele are
involved in an argument due to the misunderstanding caused by the letter ending
with ‘my own love’. Both of them are blaming each other for cheating and
deceiving. Before they could resolve their dispute amicably there comes a
Rumanian journalist Madam Bessarabo with her photographer to have an interview
with the Author about him play ‘La Maguerite’ which had become a big hit in
Rumania and which had also made the Author very famous.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Then an uncontrollable series of illogical
happenings start taking place which leaves the Author completely bewildered and
perplexed. After the quarrel and argument his wife prepares to leave him and go
to her sister. This is followed by the arrival of two plumbers to repair the
leak in water supply. A woman makes a wrong call thinking that the Author is
Leon, the caller’s first husband. In the midst of all this the maid arrives,
literally crying, to seek permission to cut the water supply on behalf of the
plumbers. The woman calls again looking for her first husband Leon strongly
believing that he was playing some tricks to hide his identity from her. Ardele
comes out of bathroom in a very angry mood thinking that the Author had cut the
water supply in order to torture and take revenge on her. His friend Gustave
calls him to discuss about the climax of his script. Author’s mother comes
asking him to arrange the exchange of her flat with someone. The interview is
never getting on its way. Before he could start afresh his friends calls him
again to discuss the climax. Outside La Surette comes seeking more money and a
pair of boots. The woman calls the third time looking for Leon. The Housing Inspector
(the man in black) comes to enquire about the under-use of the house by the
Author. By now the Author has lost all the control over the situation and he
does not know what he is talking about. This further creates chaos and humour
as well. He gets angry with La Surette and throws his shoes towards him and
asks to take the gas from his kitchen. Ardele comes to enquire about his secret
beloved. Again a woman calls enquiring about the flat and he introduces his
mother to the woman and further confusion is created. Gontran arrives with the
problem of his wife’s dishonesty and his new beloved Lea. Gustave calls again and
Author replies “Later Darling later’ which infuriates Ardele and she slaps the
Author. As Gontran has fainted the Author goes to the kitchen to get some
tincture of Iodine. Ardele then talks with the woman after getting the number
from the telephone operator and they end up threatening each other. On the
other side the Author catches La Surette with the maid in offensive situation
and also he comes to know about the maid’s pregnancy. Once again Madam
Bessarabo tries to continue the interview but the Author get angry and chases
her out along with the photographer. In the mean time the housing inspector has
completed digging out all the hidden facts about rooms. Simultaneously the
plumbers come informing them that they had found the leak but were not in
position to repair it. Suddenly a gush of water comes and a chaos is created by
everybody running here and there to save themselves from getting drenched.
Gustave call again to discuss about the climax but hangs up angrily thinking
that the Author was not very prompt and sincere in discussion with him. Finally
Ardele comes with a gun, fires at the author but cries in relief knowing that
the Author was not hurt and end up unconscious in his arm. Finally the author
comes on the stage and once again reminds the audience that ‘the primary
function of the theatre is, was and forever will be entertainment’. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thus we can conclude with the realization that the
play has been very successful in meeting the demand of theatre from the
Author’s point of view by providing so much of light hearted humour and
laughter at large. Also we find the Author caught in a complex situation
leading to a lot of illogical incidents and chaos over which he has no control
till the end which is very much in line with the requirement of ‘The theatre of
Absurd’. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Facts
to remember</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">‘Episode
in the life of an Author’ belongs to the genre of Farce.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele
accuses the Author of being unfaithful to make the author feel guilty.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Rumanian journalist Madam Bessarabo has come to interview the Author and know
his view about love and ‘La Marguerite’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gustave,
the Author’s friend is a script writer and wants to discuss about the end of
his film.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Author’s
real name in the play is Jacques.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
quarrel between Author and his wife is because of a letter with ‘my own love’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Madam
Bessarabo is a lady fond of boasting and flattering.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
name of the maid Leonie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
name of the first husband of the lady calling over phone is Leon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele
calls the Author ‘an insensible brute because he appears not to be
understanding the sentiment of cat and asks to give a tin of sardine<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Housing
Inspector (Man in Black) has come to enquire about the under-utilization of the
Author’s house.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Madam
Bessarabo boasted to housing inspector by saying that she is a princess<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">La
Surette has helped the Author by lending his bayonet and saving from being
court-martialled<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">One
twenty two Retalians in Saint-Malo is house ofArdele’s sister.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Author’s
name in the play is first revealed by Gontran.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">All
the characters in the play have to wear false nose.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
title of Gustave’s film is ‘The Women with the Boas’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
maid cries throughout the play because she is pregnanat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Author and his wife Ardele were quarrelling over a letter with ending ‘my own
love’ in the beginning of the play. The Author was doubting that the letter was
from one of her lover.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
woman over the phone wanted to talk to Leon, her first husband about a flat
that she was in need of.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Author defined love by explaining that ‘love is like Marguerite; love has
petals and leaves.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Liliane
Tresor is a film actress who refused to act in Gustave’s film because she did
not want to die in the end.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">CHARACTER
SKETCHES OF SOME IMPORTANT CHARACTERS</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Author:</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">
</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Author is the central character or the
protagonist of this play. He represents a typical absurd character bringing in
him all the character traits and absurdity closely associated with the genre of
‘Farce’ and the ‘Theatre of Absurd’. Though he is a famous man, a celebrity but
he too has all the weakness of a common character. He suspects his wife after
living with her for 12 years which proves him equally vulnerable to any human
weakness. His nasty laughter during his argument and quarrel with his wife
makes him appear to be an insensitive and irritating character. He is not a
well organized person as he cannot control the events and situations in his
life. There is no order in his life. Things go topsy-turvy and he has no
control over anything. By looking at his discussion with the Housing Inspector
we also find him little cunning. However he appears to be willing to help
everybody though he cannot do any help to anyone and this is what the main
feature of absurdity in this play. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<br /></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Ardele is the second most important character in the play after the Author. She
is the wife of the Author and her presence is throughout the play. We see the
play opening with the quarrel and argument between her and the Author. This was
because the Author had found a letter in her closet ending with ‘my own love’.
Though the letter was from her sister but the Author alleged her that the
letter was from her lover. This infuriates her, and in anger she decides to
leave the author but ultimately goes nowhere.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Her staying with the Author for 12 years proves her
to be a faithful and committed wife and hence her love towards her husband
cannot be questioned at all. But on the other hand she also appears to be
dominating and over possessive of her husband. Her arguments with Gontran, the
lady over phone and Author’s mother also indicate that she is bit quarrelsome
and that her relation with mother-in-law is extremely bitter. Her expression of
disgust for the author over the issue of cats presents her as an ardent lover
of pets. She also appears to be slightly immature, short-tempered and extremely
sensitive. Her coming out in a bathrobe and quarrelling with the author, her
firing bullet at her husband and her quarrelsome appearance prove the claim. By
calling the exchange to get the number of the lady she also proves herself to
be shrewd and intelligent. So there is no doubt that she is one of the most
important characters in this play.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gustave</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Gustave is a script writer and a very close friend of the Author. His
appearance in the play is through phone when he calls the author to discuss
about climax of the film and the heroine’s refusal to die at the end as had
been agreed before. Gustav appears to be a man who does not give in to others’
suggestions. He is proud as well because he thinks his ideas are the best. He
calls the author to discuss the climax of his film but when the author suggests
for a comic ending, he gets angry with the author. He also does not seem to be
an understanding person because he feels that he is in problem and the author
is sitting casually in his sitting room unwilling to help him find the solution
of his problem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mother: </span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
character of mother further adds to the richness of humour and comedy of the
play. Being mother she is obviously older but her dresses are flowery which is
humorous and funny. She is very impatient as she cannot wait even for a little
when she comes to the author to ask him to find a flat for her. She childish
too, because she gets over excited when she hears his son talking about
apartment over phone. Without any delay she rushes to meet the lady to discuss
about the apartment. Her age seems to have taken better of him and she has
grown impatient as she cannot wait at all. Her relation with Ardele is very low
and at any cost she is not ready to stay with her. What is remarkable about the
character of mother is that she enriches the humour and comedy in the play<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gontran</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
<b> </b>Being
a low grade comedy (farce) the play is stuffed with so many humorous, funny and
absurd characters, Gontran being one such character. He is a close family
friend of the Author who appears on the stage to discuss about his problem
related to his wife and new girlfriend. Physically he is huge and gigantic but
emotionally he is very weak and childish. He breaks down easily and starts
crying like a child. He is sensitive and easily gets angry or sentimental. When
Ardele comments adversely about his girlfriend Lea he gets extremely angry and
next moment he starts crying like a child in the arms of the Author and
ultimately falls unconscious there. Though he has left his wife long time back
but he still loves her and that’s why he has come to the Author to seek their
help and resolve the problem between him and his wife. <b> <o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Rockwell, serif; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">SYMBOLS USED IN THE PLAY<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Rockwell, serif; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -9.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Symbols
play an integral part of communicating the writer's vision to the play, in
Episode in the Life of the Author the following symbols are used:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">False Noses<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">All
the characters in the play are wearing false noses and this is an indispensable
part of the play. The false noses here symbolize the absurd nature of the play.
More than anything Anouilh has used the false noses for all characters to show
the purpose of absurd plays. The primary function of the theater is
entertainment and false noses actually justify this purpose and add a comic
element to the characters. It also symbolizes that human beings no matter what
they consider themselves to be, after all they are just players on the stage of
the world and that their purposes of living are often falsified through the
choice of their own lenses. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The Leak<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The leak in the play is
symbolic of two important elements. Absurd plays often contradict the notion
that there is always a reason behind the occurrence of things and events in our
everyday life. The leak is used to symbolize that the way events and incidents
happen sometimes are beyond logic and a rational explanation. It also
highlights the power of myths and miracles that impact our life in an
inexplicable way.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The Boots</span></b></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">La Surette approaches
the author for the money to pay for the gas bill but later he places more
importance on the boots than the money. The boots here symbolize the absurd
desires of human beings. Human beings have unlimited desires and wants but
there is a lack of rational explanation for these desires. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">We do not know why we
want some things and we often do not know why we do not want some other things
in life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The Weeping
Maid</span></b></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Leonie, the maid is a
minor character who is a member of the author’s house. She ushers all the
visitors and the guests who come with their problems to the author. But all the
while, she is found to be weeping throughout the play. A certain degree of
suspense is maintained by Anouilh, until towards the end when we are informed
that she had been weeping because she had become pregnant. Both the Author and
Ardele are oblivious of her pregnancy and pay no heed to her sufferings. She is
left on her own to fight her own battles. Her weeping is symbolic of the
physical and mental sufferings that people go through in the walks of their
daily life. It is also suggestive of how other people desert us in times of
distress to face the problems of our own life although we have been living
under the same roof. Poor people like the maid are exploited by powerful men;
their woes unheard, their pains undivided and left to strive and struggle on
their own.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Rockwell, serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 16.1000003814697px;"><br /></span></div>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Falling Picture<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-IN">The falling picture symbolizes:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">The wife’s temperament: Whenever Ardele leaves the study slamming the door, the picture falls down. It happens from the beginning of the play whenever she quarrels with her husband. The falling picture here shows that Ardele is a short tempered lady.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">The problems of marital life: It clearly reveals in the play the theme that if the husband and the wife do not have mutual trust then there will be quarrels and unrest in the house.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">The author’s character as a patient man: In the play Ardele addresses the Author angrily for three times and on all these occasion her slamming the door makes the picture to fall down. Whenever it happens the Author calmly picks it up and hangs it back without showing ill temper towards his wife. This clearly shows that the Author is a very patient, cool and composed man with immense tolerance. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">To add a comic element to the play amidst the tensions of the author’s marital life: Whenever Ardele and the Author quarrel the scene becomes serious, but in the middle of this seriousness the falling picture gives opportunity to the audience to laugh at it.</span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
</div>
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">Disorder and chaos: At the end of the play the ceiling collapses and cascades of water flows all over the room, even the pictures fall down from the walls as well, here the falling picture symbolises disorder and chaos (confusion) in the scene.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br />
<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Some Satirical elements in the Play:</span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></b>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-weight: bold;">Satire on Media:</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In its Satire on Media madame Bessarabo is the target. She has come all the way from Rumania to France just to interview the Author about his last play and especially to know what he feels about <b>Love, </b>but often she is seen to deviate from the topic and discuss about other unimportant matters.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">This particular situation also shows that the media can go to any length/extent for a sensational story. Here the media has been portrayed as taking undue advantage over the Author's private affairs and weakness.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Satire on celebrities: </b>The celebrities are satired through the character of the Author. Their behaviors are also ridiculed towards the end of the play where the Author is no more calm and behaves agitated. </span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">CONFLICTS,
ISSUES & PROBLEMS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 11.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Marital Discord<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 11.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The
ludicrous quarrel between Ardele and the author point out the complexity and
the triviality of disagreement and strife between spouses. It also portrays the
incompatibility and the conflict of egos and ideas between married couples even
after they have been through together for around twelve years. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 11.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Infidelity</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 11.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">In some
marriages there is a loss of faith between couples as years roll by. Partners
become unfaithful and disloyal and tend to suspect each other’s fidelity. In
the drama we have Ardele who becomes envious of many female characters. She
sneers at the journalist. She picks up a quarrel with Leon’s ex-wife. And slaps
the author for addressing Gustave as “Darling!”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 11.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">In-law Hassles <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 11.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The
intrusion of one’s parents in the family is also seen as aggravating family
discords. Ardela is annoyed at the mother’s presence in the house. The mother
says that she is living separately because of Ardele’s presence in her son’s
life. The mother and Ardele are not able to put up under the same roof,
indicating to us that there is almost always some source of difficulty between
the mother and the daughter in-law to cope up with each other. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 11.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Possessiveness<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 11.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Anouilh
gives us a slight hint that women try to possess their husbands although they
want to dispossess them. It is likely that Ardela is trying to attract the
author’s attention when she says that she is leaving the house. It’s very
amusing when she prolongs her departure because there is no one to look after
Glothaire. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 11.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Absurdity of marriage<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 11.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Anouilh
subtly brings up the absurdities of marriage and tries to question its
significance in one’s life through Ardelle and the author, Gontran and
Lucienne, and Leon and Madam Pripon Minet. In case of Gontran, he has already
left Lucienne but it is absurd when he complains of her deceiving him. Moreover
he is of the mind that he loves Lea and doesn’t want Ardelle to call Lea a
‘stick’ or a ‘shriveled prune’. The unknown woman, on the other hand, is in
search of her ex-husband. She wants him to help her find a new flat to lodge
in. Through all these Anouilh points out the absurd nature of men and women in
marriages. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
PURPOSES OF VISITS OF THE CHARACTERS <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The Journalist &
The Photographer<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The first visitor is Madame Bessarabo and with her is her photographer.
She is a Rumanian journalist who smokes like a ‘chimney sweep’. She has come to
see the Author with an appointment along
with her photographer, who is weighed down with his equipments. She is a
spell-bound audience of the author. Her country-men also idolize the author’s play ,‘La
Marguerite’ which made a great
impression in <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bucharest</st1:place></st1:city>.
The press was unanimous and had almost been staged for the 4<sup>th</sup> time
but the general opinion was that it was a little hard. Rumanians were such great
idealists that they believed enormously in sentiments. In fact this
explains why she has come to see the author. She wants to know what the author
really thinks about love and wants to make it known to her intelligentsia who
are said to be eagerly waiting for the Author’s opinion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The Plumbers<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The next visitors are the two Plumbers. These two plumbers visit the
author to mend the leak in the author’s house. They seemed to be young and
amiable in the way they teased the maid, Leonie. And seemed to be careless in
the way they came into the study where the author and Madame Bessarabo were
having their interview. They feel the walls in silence with an air of great
mystery weaving around everyone and almost knocked down the photographer. They
then get out by another door without a word. They have come to mend the leak
but instead they cause a great problem whereby the water trickles all over the
place. On top of that, they give out all the information relating to the
author’s extra accommodation which the author was actually trying to conceal
from the inspector.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The Mother<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The third visitor is the author’s Mother. She is a mother who wants to
have more and more flats in contrast with her old age. She had lost her lawsuit
too. She doesn’t want to live with her son because she knows that her son’s
wife (Ardele) is shrewd. She has come to see her son because she wanted him to
buy her a new flat. After she reaches there, she comes to know more about the
other flats which are for sale. She wants her son to buy them too for her.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Lasurette<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Lasurette
visits next. He is a tramp, still young. He was in the army and served the
country together with the author. He saved the author from being
court-martialled the time he mislaid his bayonet. He comes to seek help
especially money because his gas is going to be cut off. He has not paid the
gas bills for nine months. He had come
to the author's place just a week ago and was given seven thousand Francs. He
also wants a pair of boots from the author. Because he had lent his bayonet to
the author and had saved him from being court-martialed, he thinks he had saved
the author from death and that the author should be indebted to him eternally
and that he has the right to ask the author for whatever he needed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">With
the entry of La Surette, the tramp in the latter part of the Drama we come to
know that La Surette and the author once were together in the army. La Surette
reminds the author of the favour that he had done during their times together
every time he approaches the author. When they were about to go for a parade,
Jacques mislaid the bayonet of his gun. At this critical juncture, La Surette
lent his bayonet to the author putting his own life at stake. If the latter had
not saved the author he would have been court-martialed or suspended from duty
thus getting in between the devil and the deep blue sea. Jacques still
remembers the favour he has received from La Surette and he is grateful for all
that he has done. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">On the
contrary, La Surette seems to ask more than what he deserves. He thinks he has
earned the right to ask anything from the author anytime he wants. He assumes
that the author is greatly indebted to him for the new lease of life he has
given by saving him from the possible court-martial. He thinks that the help
and the favour rendered by him cannot be compensated even if the author gave
his life. So, he feels that he can ask for anything from the author – anything
big or small in terms of material value. In other words, La Surette is a
parasite on the author.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The Housing
Inspector<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The Housing inspector is the next visitor. He wears his black uniform
and visits the author to inspect whether the complaint lodged against him for
his insufficient occupation of the premises was true? He wants to put in
Brigadier Lapomme, a father of eight if
the complaint is found to be true. On seeing Madame Bessarabo and the
photographer he shows a sly concern. He forewarns the author and informs that
he will send three other policemen, a Brigadier and the two recruits. He warns
to send along some oldage pensioners none under hundred.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Gontran<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Gontran
visits next who is a giant of a man. He has left his wife Lucienne and now is
in love with Lea. He has come to share his personal feelings and talk about his
awful life after he left Lucienne. It seems that he still loves her though
nothing is left between them as of now. He writes and calls her to no avail. He
thinks that she is deceiving him. He wants the author to advice him and seeks
solace from him. Unable to bear the pain of lost love and the taunts from
Ardelle, he faints in the arms of the author.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">UNCONVENTIONAL
PLOT, THEME AND DIALOGUES<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The play follows unconventional plot structures, theme and dialogues.
Neither the scenes nor the time is put properly in the play. Conventional norms
have been forgone to purposefully comment on the purposelessness and the
meaninglessness of human existence. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The
events in this play are not logically connected to each other, and to an
average audience, meaningless.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The arrangement and the timing of events are haphazard. For instance
Ardelle pops into the scene irregularly at her own discretion and we do not
know whether she is present in the house at other times when the author in
engaged with other characters. Her irregular interruptions make no sense at
all. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The interview is cut short several times with interventions from other
characters but when they continue again they begin as if they have progressed a
lot actually when nothing has been achieved.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The phone calls especially Gustave’s, consume a significant amount of
time. The anecdotes he relates to the author has no relevancy to the author, he
seems least bothered about what Gustave is saying. Nonetheless from the other end we have Gustave putting
his heart and soul in explaining everything he has on his table.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The maid’s pregnancy is one that is very difficult to understand.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The
actions of the characters are senseless, useless and absurd.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The author is bewildered, troubled, and strangely threatened by a large
number of visitors who each bring a bag of problems to him.. He has no control
over what is happening in his life or his house. The final scene where he is
shouting for everyone to be calm, while he himself is losing control shows him
as a true absurd protagonist.</span><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Distrust
of language as a means of communication:<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Language in Episode in
the Life an Author is shown as an unreliable and insufficient tool of
communication; the broken dialogues and conversation between Ardelle and the
unknown woman (Leon’s wife), the interview between Madam Bessarabo and the Author
are some examples of this use of language. In this way, conventional speech
seems to act as a barrier between the characters rather than serve as a means
of communication.</span><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
important questions and answers:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">d</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">escribe
the opening scene of the play.
Or<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></li>
</ol>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Describe the quarrel scene between the Author and
his wife Ardele.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ans: The play begins with the appearance of the
Author and his wife Ardele in a very angry and agitated mood, each of them
banging on the table in the study room in anger. This was all because the
Author found a letter in the closet ending with ‘my own love’ and doubted that
the letter was from the lover of Ardele. Ardele on the other hand feels
terribly angry and humiliated over the allegation. She simply cannot tolerate that
her husband is doubting her for some extra-marital affair and he has secretly
searched her drawer and closet. She tries to explain that the letter was from
her sister but the Author refuse to believe her saying that her sister, being
uneducated, cannot write such letter. Moreover he alleges that the letter is
with masculine ending. Ardele feels cheated and betrayed because this
allegation has come after living together with her husband for 12 years. She
feel so angry and frustrated that she decides to separate from Author and go to
her sister’s place. However the arrival of Madam Bessarabo, the Rumanian
journalist puts an end to the quarrel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">w</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ith
close reference to the play ‘Episode in the life of an Author’ prove that
this play is a ‘Farce’ and belongs to the Theatre of the Absurd</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ol>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The play written by the famous French dramatist Jean
Anouilh and under analysis is a typical example of a ‘Farce’, a sub genre of
the Theatre of the Absurd. The theatre of absurd propagates the philosophy of
life being an absurd phenomenon and ‘Farce’ is a low grade comedy mainly aiming
for creating scenes of laughter by creating humorous scenes and wits. Overall
such play does not have any sequence of events or logical order of happenings.
To get a more clear picture of whether the play is a farce or not and whether
it belongs to the Theatre of Absurd or not we have to review the important
features of absurd drama. </span><br />
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Following are the main features of absurd drama:</b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It
has unusual plot, theme, dialogues and actions which makes it different from
other traditional plays.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
events, actions are illogical, senseless, often useless, confusing, absurd and
totally beyond the understanding of the common audience.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Often
situations are funny absurd and often there is a lack of sequence of events<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
characters are often caught in a chaotic situation and find it very difficult
to understand its place in the universe. They are often confused and under lots
of meaningless pressures and tensions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Often
the inadequacy of language for communication is also exposed and it is shown
that language is an unreliable and insufficient tool of communication.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We find all the above mentioned features prominently
present and making the main construct of the drama. Thus there is no hesitation
to say that the play is a very suitable example of ‘Farce’ and it belongs to
the theatre of absurd.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Describe
the character of Madam Bessarabo in your own words</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Madam Bessarabo is a Rumanian journalist and she has
come to interview the author about his play ‘La Maruerite’. She also wants to
get the view of author about love as she feels that the author has been bit
harsh while dealing with love in his play. She is one of the most important
minor characters in the play. We find two very strong character traits in Madam
Bessarabo. Firstly she is a lady who uses flattery to impress the author.
Without any hesitation she says everything French is extraordinary and
Rumanians are very much devoted to everything that is French. Secondly she is
boasting because when the housing inspector came to check the house of the
author she introduced herself as Princesses Bessarabo. She appears clever too
as she knew how to impress somebody and get what she exactly wanted as a
journalist.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="4" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How
does the character of the Housing Inspector, the Man in Black, add to the
comedy and humour of the play</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Housing Inspector or the ‘Man in Black’ is yet
another important minor character adding some extra flavour to the comedy and
the humour of the drama. He has come to enquire about the underutilization of
the house occupied by the author. He is always appearing very serious and
extremely dedicated and dutiful. He questions furiously and takes notes of
whatever is spoken by anybody there without even thinking that they are not the
part of the house. He keeps on adding some new charges against the author
without checking the validity of his allegations. He appears silly and funny as
well when he is frantically taking notes and serious preparing reports even
under the water fall.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="5" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">L</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ist
down some of the funny incidents of the play</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Being a funny play belonging to the genre of Farce
this play is full of funny and humorous scenes. The list below is indicative of
all the funny and humorous scenes in the play:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">t</span><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">he opening scene funny
argument between the Author and his wife Ardele over a trivial issue of letter
in which the wife threatens to leave and the author laughs nastily.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Madam
Bessarabo talking with the Author flatteringly and appearing as if she likes
everything that the Author says or does.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele
appearance on the stage in a bathing robe and charging the Author for
intentionally cutting off the water supply without verifying the fact.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
woman calling repeatedly over phone and claiming that the Author was her first
husband, jasmine one two one two.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Author’s
mother and the woman talking over phone and discussing about the apartment.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele
talking angrily with the woman over phone thinking that she was Author’r
girlfriend.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele’s
seriousness, anger and frustration while she was talking with the Author about
the cat.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
House Inspector visiting and noting everything that he heard without checking
out the relevance.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
scene when the Author is having argument with La Surret.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
scene when Gontran and Ardele argue about Lea.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gontran
sobbing like a child and fainting in the arm of the Author.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Plumbers
working stupidly and spoiling the whole thing rather than repairing the leak.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
scene of Ardele firing bullet at the Author blindly and the Author frantically
dozing the bullet. <span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<ol start="6" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">w</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">hy
does Liliane Tresor refuse to act in Gustave’s film initially? And upon
what condition did she agree again to act and why?<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></li>
</ol>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Liliane Tresor is the actress who has agreed to play
the lead role and die in line with the script of the film ‘The Woman with the
Boas’ directed by Gustv. But later she refuses to die. However after sometime
once again she agrees to die provided the director makes her die with
consumption (TB). Instead the author suggest yet another climax and says that
if she turns religious and joins a convent then the film would sell better
especially in Canada and Channel Islands. Finally they agree to have the climax
in the form of fire and gun fire. This dispute must be because the actress
wanted her death to be not as the repercussion of her character traits but something
else so that she could win the sympathy of the viewers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<ol start="7" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">c</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">omment
on the role and the significance of La Surette in the play.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></li>
</ol>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">La Surette in this play is one of the important
minor characters. Though La Surrette appears to be like a beggar in the play who
often comes to the Author for asking favours but earlier the Author and La
Surette served the army together. During that period La Surette had helped the
Author by saving him from being court martialled when he has misplace his
bayonet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Very much in line with the tone and treatment of the
play La Surette provides lots of fun, humour and amusement in this play. His
character and activities adds enormously to the comic impact of the play.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<ol start="8" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">d</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">o
you find any touch of satirical elements in the play? Justify your answer</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ol>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Though, this play is exclusively a play belonging to
the ‘Theatre of Absurd’ aiming to create and provide lots of fun, humour and
comedy to the readers and audience but we cannot miss the touch of satirical
element too if we analyse it closely and critically. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The first touch of satirical element we find when we
study the treatment of media in this play. Madam Bessarabo, who represents
media, often appears to have deviated from her primary task. Her flattery seems
to hinting that media is not always neutral and objective. Further, when she is
taking the picture of the Author in his angry appearance, it shows that media
can go to any extent to get a thrilling and sensational story. Media also
appears to be interfering in the private affairs of the Author’s life. These
are all the harsh reality to media to a great extent in the modern time and
hence could be considered satirical.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Secondly the play also satirizes the famous
personalities and proves that they too, like all the common mass, are human beings
and thus equally loaded with the human weaknesses like anger and absurdity of
life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-91477751452704647262013-09-23T17:50:00.002+06:002014-08-20T15:39:58.919+06:00Short story "Test" by Theodore Thomas<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">Test</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"> -
<b>Theodore
Thomas</b><i><o:p></o:p></i></span><br />
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBsNqrTWUgVmq00HoiQucEqI8h7Fdxz1XaQy0uLc9e2DYLYlNXi-_NzLMAEAaOc9yQR2LkpIkZ_WrxAs4xfApBmtvxuBo-MVJ5l9jolamuEMvvM_T_m8P6L77OEWKpvBRrPkuBDRfG7W8/s1600/download+(2).jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBsNqrTWUgVmq00HoiQucEqI8h7Fdxz1XaQy0uLc9e2DYLYlNXi-_NzLMAEAaOc9yQR2LkpIkZ_WrxAs4xfApBmtvxuBo-MVJ5l9jolamuEMvvM_T_m8P6L77OEWKpvBRrPkuBDRfG7W8/s1600/download+(2).jpg" /></a></div>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Background</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">:</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This
fantasy tells the story of Robert Proctor who, while taking a driver’s test
under an advanced form of hypnosis, experiences a terrible accident. Although
he behaves responsibly, he is denied his license and is taken away by the
authorities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The story has a
double plot structure – in two different times, two different state of mind,
namely the accident that Robert experiences under the state of hypnosis, and one
in the driver’s testing centre.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Techniques
employed by the author to create different moods in the story – uses short
sentences to create tension, urgency and fast action, while long sentences are
put in to slow the pace and create a more thoughtful atmosphere.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Genre:</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Contemporary Fantasy Fiction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Theme</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Ethics of the power of the state to
control its citizens.</span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Point
of view</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Third person narrator.</span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Setting</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Turn-pike and the testing centre room
where Robert Proctor is hypnotized.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Summary
and Critical Analysis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">“</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Test”
is a fascinating story about Robert Proctor, who represents young enthusiastic
people wanting to drive and the state authority conducting a test to see
whether he is fit to get a driver’s license. Though the fantasy fiction
describes the concerns of the government in preventing and controlling
accident, Thomas surprises the reader with a very unique way to test people on
their driving skill. It provides us a glimpse on the imaginary invention of the
future consisting of futuristic elements of science fiction, action stories and
realism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
story explores the theme of the ethics of the state to control the citizens
over their opinion, ideas and self identity. The blue uniform and men with coats
symbolize the group of government officials trying to exhibit their ability and
technology to control the mind of Robert Proctor under an advanced form of
hypnosis, and make him experience a terrible accident. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Although
Robert Proctor behaves responsibly, he is denied his license and he is taken
away by the authorities. He feels responsible for the death of his mother and
the girl in the car which loomed ahead of him though nothing happened in
reality. The vivid image of the girl’s face in his head, along with his
mother’s cry lingers in his mind after the hypnosis. This is where Thomas
integrates the two plot, and surprises the reader that the emotions that ran
through him are true and real, but has been intentionally misled by the testing
people (the authorities), because the act of hypnosis itself is a process of
events that takes place in the mind under the direction of a second person.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
“two grooves worn in the floor”, of the last sentence of the story suggest the
executive decision regarding the fate of the people coming to test themselves
in the testing center. The world in which Robert Proctor lives, is a world
based on control. The ruts on the floor symbolize the number of people who had
come to test their driving skill, but have been dragged out of the door by the
authorities deliberately, proclaiming them as unfit to be a driver in the real
world.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
author sends out signal for the readers to question whether such type of test
is fair or ethical, how could they judge people’s ability and skills with such
restrictions? Would they make better drivers? Would they become careful drivers
for the rest of their lives? Would mental torture and trauma be of any help to
the person seeking a driver’s license? Will Robert Proctor be able to come back
and get himself tested again? – are the questions which make the reader think
and find out remedies to help the government prevent such dictatorship on the
citizen in future.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
protagonist is hypnotized for a driver’s test, so the emotions that run through
him are true but the incident that he imagines took place actually never happened.
The protagonist sees himself driving on the turnpike on a warm May morning with
his mother on the front seat. It was a pleasant ride and they were enjoying the
ride.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Robert
could see a blue convertible following a big truck in front of his car. He
began to overtake them. When suddenly the blue convertible swung out behind the
truck without warning and struck his car on the right front fender. As a result
of this his car was knocked to the side of the turnpike. He was too smart to
slam on the brakes. After that he lost control of the car and tried to struggle
with the steering wheel. Then series of accidents occur. First the car hits a
rock blowing out the tire, and the car turned sideways and skidded into the
oncoming lanes, next an oncoming car struck his car from the side and spun it
into the left hand lane and finally his car met head on with an oncoming car
which was at high speed and he went into darkness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Before
he met head on with the oncoming car, he saw on the front seat a beautiful girl
fast asleep with her head supported against the back seat, Robert Proctor
stared at the face of the girl and the image of the girl was imprinted in his
mind. After the accident, he felt deeply sorry for her. All the time the vivid
image of the girl was in his mind. We the readers finally realize that what
Robert experienced had never happened and the girl who died was not real as he
was hypnotized to take the driver’s test. He was deliberately put in an
accident by the hypnotists to test whether he was really fit to be a driver in
the real world. He feels responsible for the death and even after the hypnosis
is broken, there is a vivid picture of her face in his head but in real life no
accident or death takes place. It’s really ironical in such a situation as
Robert had no control over his mind as his mind was controlled by hypnotists.
Still the hypnotists pronounce him unfit to drive in the real world. They fail
to see that Robert was able to come out of the trauma after the serious
accident and that he would be confident to face the road again.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">It
makes the reader wonder whether such a test is really ethical. How can someone
test one’s ability by hypnotizing them and draw conclusions from the unreal situation?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">“Test”
is a short story about people’s need for power. The power being that to control
other’s ideas, opinions and self identity, through fear of divergence and
government control. The short story “Test” is derived from the fear of
diversification and self identity. From the moment Robert Proctor wakes up from
his hypnosis, the reader sees that the foundation of the world he is living is
based on control. The act of hypnosis itself is someone going into your mind
and telling you exactly what to do. Symbolism abounds in this short story: one
in particular is that of the man in the blue uniform. The uniform symbolizes
police and government dominance. However “Test” shows us that it is the
government that is in control. Throughout the story the main character is always
referred to by his full name, Robert Proctor. This suggests that Robert is
being watched and recorded all the time he is taking his test. Big Brother is
always watching him; perhaps the men in white coats are observing him
throughout his ordeal watching him like a lab rat. The man telling Robert what
to do during his test is wearing a blue uniform symbolizing police and
government control. In this story, the government is like a “Dictator”. The
theme of the story is revealed in the final interchange between Robert and the
uniformed man.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
author points that we never know when a seemingly simple action, like driving
down a freeway, will have serious consequences. Or ability to make wise
decisions may be tested at any time. Hence, Theodore Thomas uses current-day
situation in such a way that readers would be alert when the time comes and
might use prevention rather than cure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Points
to Remember:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 37.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">‘Test’
is a fantasy and a science fiction written by American author Theodore Thomas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 37.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Robert
Proctor is the main protagonist of this story along with some minor and
supporting characters like the men in uniform and other officials.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 37.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
story basically deals with the theme of the ethics of the power and extent of
the state or government to exercise its control over its citizens.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 37.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Robert
Proctor is the main protagonist of the story who is undergoing a test to obtain
his driving licence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 37.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This
story applies the science of ‘hypnosis’ on a human.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 37.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
author is the narrator in this story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 37.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
story has been written from the third person point of view.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 37.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
story, being a science fiction, is futuristic in its style.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 37.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
highway (turn pike), and the room in the department’s office is the setting of
this story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 37.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Elements
of science fiction, description of thrilling actions and realism are blended
together in this fine story.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 37.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
this story an advance level of hypnosis has been used on a young person who is
seeking driving licence.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Theme:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This story deals with the theme of
humanity’s (state and the government representatives here seem to be
representing the elite sections of humanity) hunger for power to control
others. It also shows that to meet this end they can go to any extent
regardless of any ethical values or any respect for others’ (common men)
dignity and rights.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Techniques
Used:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">As the story is a science fiction so the
elements of science fiction are prominently dominating the technique of the
author as the author has used the advance technique of hypnotism. Besides, the
author has also blended excellently the elements of thrill, adventure and
realism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Title(Justification):</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">As the whole story is about a person
undergoing the test to obtain his driving licence, there could be no better
title then ‘test’. However it’s worth noting that the main focus in the story
is the method of conducting test and the ethical aspects of the test and
subsequent denial of licence to the person undergoing the test.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Character
Sketch</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Robert
Proctor</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:
In this story Robert Proctor is the only character around whom the whole story
has been woven. He is undergoing the test for obtaining the driving licence. In
the story there is not much scope to explore the characteristic qualities of
Robert Proctor. However, during the test when he is experiencing the accident
under the spell of hypnosis, he has shown lots of skill and maturity. He does
not show any sign of panic. He is fully aware of the situation and acts the
best in the given circumstances. So we can say that he is a skilful and
responsible young man and an expert in driving too. Right after the test, he is
once again ready to drive which shows that he is confident and daring too. He
is not a person who can easily be intimidated. And at the end it was this
quality that disqualified him in the test and he was denied his rightful
driving licence.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Questions
and Answer</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Describe
the plot of this story in your own words. Or
This story has two distinct plots. Describe them in your own words</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This
story is a science fiction based on the advanced level of hypnotism used is
testing drivers before awarding them driving licence. Thus this story has two
very distinct plots.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">One
is when the protagonist, under the spell of hypnotism, undergoes the test on
the turn-pike in a cool sunny May morning and experiences all the imaginary
accidents. In this plot he very happy and cheerful until he meets those
accidents. And, the other is when he is brought back into his normal
consciousness after the spell of hypnotism. In this plot he is relieved
initially when he is told that all the accidents were fake and imaginary. But
when he is denied his licence he gets frustrated and angry and clearly shows
his frustration and anger.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Do
you think ‘test’ is a science fiction? Justify your answer. Or Analyse the story ‘test’ as a science fiction
and a futuristic story. Or Bring out the elements of science fiction in the
story ‘test’<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">‘Test’
is a science fiction and a futuristic fantasy without any doubt at all. A
science fiction is a story based on science background. What is remarkable
about science fiction is that the story takes the reader ahead of time and
presents a futuristic scenario that may be possible in near or distant future.
From this point of view ‘Test’ is an excellent science fiction and futuristic
fantasy because in this story the author has used through the government
representatives the advance form of hypnotism to test the people seeking
driving licence. Whatever has happened in this story is not a contemporary
reality but we cannot deny that this may be a requirement for obtaining driving
licence in order to ensure safety on the road.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Describe
the accidents in your own words. Or Give a brief account of Robert Proctor’s
driving (though imaginary) on that cool pleasant May morning.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
this story the protagonist Robert Proctor is appearing the test for obtaining
his driving licence. The whole test is imaginary and under the spell of
advanced form of hypnosis. The protagonist seems to be completely unaware of
the truth. The story begins with Robert Proctor driving his car on the
turn-pike. He is driving happily with his mother beside him. The morning is
cool and pleasant. After driving for quite long he notices two vehicles in
plying in front of him – a big truck ahead and a blue convertible following the
truck. He decides to overtake them. He overtakes the convertible without any
problem. But then suddenly and without any warning the blue convertible swings
out from behind and hits his car near the right front fender. His car pulls towards
left toward the median strip. After few seconds, an oncoming car hits him from
the side and sends his car spinning further towards left. Ultimately his car
crossed the median strip and collided with a car coming from the other side.
The accident instantly killed his mother and the sleeping girl in the other
car. Finally Robert Proctor became unconscious. However what is remarkable
during this period is that he constantly hears the screaming of his mother.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Why Robert
Procter was denied his driving licence?
Or what were the explanations given by the man-in-uniform for failing the
driving test?</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Though
Robert Proctor behaved quite sensibly during the hypnotised test for his
driving licence but he was not given the licence. They said that he had been
disqualified in the test because he did not show any sense of fear or regret;
he did not seem to be bothering about the loss of human life. They said they
wanted the drivers to be more responsible on the road. They made him sign for
the next test and handed him over to the health officials for treatment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Give
a brief account of the narrative technique used in this story? Or Describe the narrative technique of this
story.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This
story has been written from the third person point of view. The author himself
is the narrator in this story. This is a science fiction and a futuristic
fantasy. Thus the story has elements of scientific fiction and it is futuristic
in its approach and treatment of plot and theme. The author has also included
lots of fast-track action, thrill and suspense in this story. The language used
in the story is direct and sentences are often short and sharp.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What was
the reason/ who was responsible for the first accident? Or Describe the first accident in your own word.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Robert
Proctor was smoothly driving on the turn-pike for quite a long time on that
cool and pleasant May morning. In front of him were two vehicles – a truck at
the front followed by a blue convertible. Robert decided to overtake them and
accelerated the speed of his car. He crossed the convertible without any
problem. But while he was overtaking the truck, the convertible swung without
any warning or signal and hit his car near the right front fender. This caused
the first accident and it was all because of the driver of the blue convertible.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Give
a brief account of what happened after the first accident. Or Describe the second accident in your
own words</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
first accident disturbed his driving the car was pushed towards the left side.
Then an oncoming car hit his car from the side pushing his car further towards
the left. He was thrown into his mother’s lap towards the right gate. With his
left hand he tried desperately to control the car and stop the spinning. He
also tried to take his car out of traffic but he could not control as his left
tyre had already blown out and his car moved further towards the left lane. The
car continued spinning further leading to the third accident.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Describe
the third accident in your own words?
Or What caused and what happened in the third accident?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">As
the car continued spinning after the second accident it further kept on moving
towards the left lane where it collided with another car coming from the
opposite direction. There was a girl sleeping in the other car beside the
driver of the second car. Ultimately the girl and Robert’s mother were dead in
the accident. However, later on, it was revealed that the whole thing was fake
and imaginary under the spell of hypnosis. <b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">How
did Robert feel when he was regaining his consciousness? Or Describe Robert Proctor’s journey from the sub-conscious
stage to conscious stage.</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">When
his car collided with another car coming from the opposite direction during the
third accident Robert fell unconscious. He felt as if he was at the bottom of a
deep well. After sometime he could see the glimpse of a faint light far away
and he could also hear some voices. Slowly that faint light grew brighter and
the voice became clearer and louder. Slowly he found himself close to the light
and sound and when he opened his eyes he saw the officials sitting in front of
him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Why did the official (man in blue) order
to take Robert out of their office?</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
officials had declared Robert unsuccessful after the test and they had denied
him the licence. This had infuriated him very badly. He felt cheated and was
very angry. He was ready even for the second drive and he demanded re-test. He
was not going out of their office nor was he willing to follow their advice to
go for treatment. Finally the officials threw him out of the office.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-68546772715435620672013-09-13T13:21:00.001+06:002017-10-31T12:33:04.069+06:00Episode in the Life of an Author by Jean Anouilh<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<a href="https://google.com/">https://www.google.com</a><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Episode
in the Life of an Author </span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">- Jean Anouilh<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Jean Anouilh is a French dramatist. He is a
prominent writer of the modern theatre. His writings are very accurate but full
of humour and entertainment because he firmly believed that the all time
function of theatre is to provide pure entertainment without leaving any other
burden on the audience.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Play in a nutshell</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">‘Episode in the Life of an Author’ is a remarkable
play belonging to ‘The Theatre of Absurd’. It is a very good example of a low
grade comedy otherwise called ‘Farce’. This genre is basically light in its
approach and humorous in nature ultimately challenging the traditional
practices of focusing on plot, characters, themes, conflicts and all other
serious elements of the drama. In such work we often find the characters out of
harmony and in a chaotic state of affairs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning of The Theatre
of absurd</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The term is applied to a number of works in drama
and prose fiction which deals with the theme of absurdity in human life. Such
kind of literature commonly depicts the sense that the human condition is
extremely and essentially absurd. The followers of this genre further believe
that this condition can be adequately represented only in works of literature
that are themselves absurd. Both the mood and dramatic techniques of absurdity
were anticipated as early as 1896 in Alfred Jarry’s French Play Ubu roi (Ubu
the king). However the literature also has its roots in the movement that
emerged and became popular in France after the horrors of World War II, as a rebellion
against essential beliefs and values both of traditional culture and
traditional literature. Earlier belief was that human beings are fairly
rational creatures who live in an intelligible universe, that they are part of
an ordered social structure, and that they may be capable of heroism and
dignity even in defeat. After 1940s, however, there was a widespread tendency
to view human being as an isolated entity thrown into an unknown universe.
Their faiths were broken and they started believing that unlike the set beliefs
the earth did not possess any inherent truth value or meaning. Further they
concluded that life moves from nothingness from where it comes towards
nothingness where it must end. Thus they believed that human existence was both
anguished and absurd.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some Important
Features of Absurd Drama</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It
has unusual plot, theme, dialogues and actions which makes it different from
other traditional plays.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
events, actions are illogical, senseless, often useless, confusing, absurd and
totally beyond the understanding of the common audience.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Often
situations are funny absurd and often there is a lack of sequence of events<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
characters are often caught in a chaotic situation and find it very difficult
to understand its place in the universe. They are often confused and under lots
of meaningless pressures and tensions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Often
the inadequacy of language for communication is also exposed and it is shown
that language is an unreliable and insufficient tool of communicaiton<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Farce:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Farce is a type of comedy written with a sole
intention of provoking hearty laughter among the audience without weighing them
down with any other moral or ethical burden in the parlance of theatre. To do
so it commonly employs highly exaggerated or caricatured types of characters and
puts them into improbable and ludicrous situations. Besides it also makes free
use of sexual mix-ups, broad verbal humour, and physical bustle and horseplay.
Farce was a component in the comic episodes in medieval miracle plays. In the
enduring English drama, farce is usually an episode in a more complex form of
comedy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Theme
of the Play</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Keenly following the trends and techniques of the
theme of absurdity, the play deals with the theme of helplessness and confusion
of human beings in the modern world. The whole play appears to be full with
disorder, chaos and illogical sequence of events upon which none has any
control. The protagonist (the author) himself is deep in troubles from various
angles. And to worsen the matter further all other characters come to seek
solace and solution to their problems from the author. They all appear to be
very much dependent on the author they all want the author to solve their
problems and troubles.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Characters
of the play</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Author</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:Jacques, the French Dramatist
and the central character of the play.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Author’s wife (<b>Glothair</b>e: the
pet cat of Ardele).<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Madame
Bassarabo</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: A Rumanian journalist who
has come to interview the author about his play ‘La Marguerite’.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Photographer</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Madame
Bassarabo’s assistant.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Maid</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Leonie, the young house maid of
the author.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Two
Plumbers</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: they have come to repair the
leak of water pipe.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Mother</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Author’s mother asking him
to buy a new apartment<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Friend</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Gustave, a cine-script
writer and author’s close friend.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Woman on the Phone</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Madam <b>Pripon Minet</b> who always calls the
author misunderstanding him to be her first husband Leon. (<b>Leon</b>: the first husband of the lady
on phone i.e. Pripon Minet).<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">10.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">La Surette</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
A tramp (a person with no fixed home or occupation and who wanders from place
to place) and the close friend of the Author.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.8pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">11.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Housing Inspector</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
the Man in Black who is a government official and has come to check about the
improper occupation of the author’s house.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.8pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">12.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gontran</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
the friend of the author who has problem with his love and has come like others
to seek help from the author. (<b>Lea</b>:
the girlfriend of Gontran/<b>Lucienne</b>:
Gontran’s wife)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">People involved in Gustave’s Woman with the Boas:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="a">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Liliane
Tresor</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> : an actress<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Paul
Zed</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: the film director/<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">producer </span> of Gustave’s
film ‘The Woman with the Boas’.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bourbanski</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: For whom was the film being produced.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary
of the play (plot):<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Episode
in the life of an Author” is a very good example of FARCE belonging to the
‘Theatre of Absurd’ written by Jean Anouilh, a French dramatist pursuing this
genre.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Author himself is the protagonist of the play
who has been subjected to chaotic situations where he finds it extremely
difficult to cope up and finally fails to bring any order in his life. The play
begins with a rather humorous scene in which the Author and his wife Ardele are
involved in an argument due to the misunderstanding caused by the letter ending
with ‘my own love’. Both of them are blaming each other for cheating and
deceiving. Before they could resolve their dispute amicably there comes a
Rumanian journalist Madam Bessarabo with her photographer to have an interview
with the Author about him play ‘La Maguerite’ which had become a big hit in
Rumania and which had also made the Author very famous.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Then an incontrollable series of illogical
happenings start taking place which leaves the Author completely bewildered and
perplexed. After the quarrel and argument his wife prepares to leave him and go
to her sister. This is followed by the arrival of two plumbers to repair the
leak in water supply. A woman makes a wrong call thinking that the Author is
Leon, the caller’s first husband. In the midst of all this the maid arrives,
literally crying, to seek permission to cut the water supply on behalf of the
plumbers. The woman calls again looking for her first husband Leon strongly
believing that he was playing some tricks to hide his identity from her. Ardele
comes out of bathroom in a very angry mood thinking that the Author had cut the
water supply in order to torture and take revenge on her. His friend Gustave
calls him to discuss about the climax of his script. Author’s mother comes
asking him to arrange the exchange of her flat with someone. The interview is
never getting on its way. Before he could start afresh his friends calls him
again to discuss the climax. Outside La Surette comes seeking more money and a
pair of boots. The woman calls the third time looking for Leon. The Housing Inspector
(the man in black) comes to enquire about the underuse of the house by the
Author. By now the Author has lost all the control over the situation and he
does not know what he is talking about. This further creates chaos and humour
as well. He gets angry with La Surette and throws his shoes towards him and
asks to take the gas from his kitchen. Ardele comes to enquire about his secret
beloved. Again a woman calls enquiring about the flat and he introduces his
mother to the woman and further confusion is created. Gontran arrives with the
problem of his wife’s dishonesty and his new beloved Lea. Gustave calls again and
Author replies “Later Darling later’ which infuriates Ardele and she slaps the
Author. As Gontran has fainted the Author goes to the kitchen to get some
tincture of Iodine. Ardele then talks with the woman after getting the number
from the telephone operator and they end up threatening each other. On the
other side the Author catches La Surette with the maid in offensive situation
and also he comes to know about the maid’s pregnancy. Once again Madam
Bessarabo tries to continue the interview but the Author get angry and chases
her out along with the photographer. In the mean time the housing inspector has
completed digging out all the hidden facts about rooms. Simultaneously the
plumbers come informing them that they had found the leak but were not in
position to repair it. Suddenly a gush of water comes and a chaos is created by
everybody running here and there to save themselves from getting drenched.
Gustave call again to discuss about the climax but hangs up angrily thinking
that the Author was not very prompt and sincere in discussion with him. Finally
Ardele comes with a gun, fires at the author but cries in relief knowing that
the Author was not hurt and end up unconscious in his arm. Finally the author
comes on the stage and once again reminds the audience that ‘the primary
function of the theatre is, was and forever will be entertainment’. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thus we can conclude with the realization that the
play has been very successful in meeting the demand of theatre from the
Author’s point of view by providing so much of light hearted humour and
laughter at large. Also we find the Author caught in a complex situation
leading to a lot of illogical incidents and chaos over which he has no control
till the end which is very much in line with the requirement of ‘The theatre of
Absurd’. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Facts
to remember</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">‘Episode
in the life of an Author’ belongs to the genre of Farce.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele
accuses the Author of being unfaithful to make the author feel guilty.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Rumanian journalist Madam Bessarabo has come to interview the Author and know
his view about love and ‘La Marguerite’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gustave,
the Author’s friend is a script writer and wants to discuss about the end of
his film.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Author’s
real name in the play is Jacques.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
quarrel between Author and his wife is because of a letter with ‘my own love’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Madam
Bessarabo is a lady fond of boasting and flattering.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
name of the maid Leonie.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
name of the first husband of the lady calling over phone is Leon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele
calls the Author ‘an insensible brute because he appears not to be
understanding the sentiment of cat and asks to give a tin of sardine<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Housing
Inspector (Man in Black) has come to enquire about the under-utilization of the
Author’s house.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Madam
Bessarabo boasted to housing inspector by saying that she is a princess<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">La
Surette has helped the Author by lending his bayonet and saving from being
court-martialled<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">One
twenty two Retalians in Saint-Malo is house ofArdele’s sister.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Author’s
name in the play is first revealed by Gontran.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">All
the characters in the play have to wear false nose.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
title of Gustave’s film is ‘The Women with the Boas’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
maid cries throughout the play because she is pregnanat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Author and his wife Ardele were quarrelling over a letter with ending ‘my own
love’ in the beginning of the play. The Author was doubting that the letter was
from one of her lover.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
woman over the phone wanted to talk to Leon, her first husband about a flat
that she was in need of.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Author defined love by explaining that ‘love is like Marguerite; love has
petals and leaves.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Liliane
Tresor is a film actress who refused to act in Gustave’s film because she did
not want to die in the end.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><b>Character Analysis:</b></span></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Author:</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Author is the central character or the
protagonist of this play. He represents a typical absurd character bringing in
him all the character traits and absurdity closely associated with the genre of
‘Farce’ and the ‘Theatre of Absurd’. Though he is a famous man, a celebrity but
he too has all the weakness of a common character. He suspects his wife after
living with her for 12 years which proves him equally vulnerable to any human
weakness. His nasty laughter during his argument and quarrel with his wife
makes him appear to be an insensitive and irritating character. He is not a
well organized person as he cannot control the events and situations in his
life. There is no order in his life. Things go topsy-turvy and he has no
control over anything. By looking at his discussion with the Housing Inspector
we also find him little cunning. However he appears to be willing to help
everybody though he cannot do any help to anyone and this is what the main
feature of absurdity in this play. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Ardele is the second most important character in the play after the Author. She
is the wife of the Author and her presence is throughout the play. We see the
play opening with the quarrel and argument between her and the Author. This was
because the Author had found a letter in her closet ending with ‘my own love’.
Though the letter was from her sister but the Author alleged her that the
letter was from her lover. This infuriates her, and in anger she decides to
leave the author but ultimately goes nowhere.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Her staying with the Author for 12 years proves her
to be a faithful and committed wife and hence her love towards her husband
cannot be questioned at all. But on the other hand she also appears to be
dominating and over possessive of her husband. Her arguments with Gontran, the
lady over phone and Author’s mother also indicate that she is bit quarrelsome
and that her relation with mother-in-law is extremely bitter. Her expression of
disgust for the author over the issue of cats presents her as an ardent lover
of pets. She also appears to be slightly immature, short-tempered and extremely
sensitive. Her coming out in a bathrobe and quarrelling with the author, her
firing bullet at her husband and her quarrelsome appearance prove the claim. By
calling the exchange to get the number of the lady she also proves herself to
be shrewd and intelligent. So there is no doubt that she is one of the most
important characters in this play.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gustave</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Gustave is a script writer and a very close friend of the Author. His
appearance in the play is through phone when he calls the author to discuss
about climax of the film and the heroine’s refusal to die at the end as had
been agreed before. Gustav appears to be a man who does not give in to others’
suggestions. He is proud as well because he thinks his ideas are the best. He
calls the author to discuss the climax of his film but when the author suggests
for a comic ending, he gets angry with the author. He also does not seem to be
an understanding person because he feels that he is in problem and the author
is sitting casually in his sitting room unwilling to help him find the solution
of his problem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mother: </span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
character of mother further adds to the richness of humour and comedy of the
play. Being mother she is obviously older but her dresses are flowery which is
humorous and funny. She is very impatient as she cannot wait even for a little
when she comes to the author to ask him to find a flat for her. She childish
too, because she gets over excited when she hears his son talking about
apartment over phone. Without any delay she rushes to meet the lady to discuss
about the apartment. Her age seems to have taken better of him and she has
grown impatient as she cannot wait at all. Her relation with Ardele is very low
and at any cost she is not ready to stay with her. What is remarkable about the
character of mother is that she enriches the humour and comedy in the play<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gontran</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
<b> </b>Being
a low grade comedy (farce) the play is stuffed with so many humorous, funny and
absurd characters, Gontran being one such character. He is a close family
friend of the Author who appears on the stage to discuss about his problem
related to his wife and new girlfriend. Physically he is huge and gigantic but
emotionally he is very weak and childish. He breaks down easily and starts
crying like a child. He is sensitive and easily gets angry or sentimental. When
Ardele comments adversely about his girlfriend Lea he gets extremely angry and
next moment he starts crying like a child in the arms of the Author and
ultimately falls unconscious there. Though he has left his wife long time back
but he still loves her and that’s why he has come to the Author to seek their
help and resolve the problem between him and his wife. <b> <o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , serif; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Symbols Used in the Play:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , serif; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Symbols
play an integral part of communicating the writer's vision to the play, in
Episode in the Life of the Author the following symbols are used:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">False Noses<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">All
the characters in the play are wearing false noses and this is an indispensable
part of the play. The false noses here symbolize the absurd nature of the play.
More than anything Anouilh has used the false noses for all characters to show
the purpose of absurd plays. The primary function of the theatre is
entertainment and false noses actually justify this purpose and add a comic
element to the characters. It also symbolizes that human beings no matter what
they consider themselves to be, after all they are just players on the stage of
the world and that their purposes of living are often falsified through the
choice of their own lenses. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The Leak<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The leak in the play is
symbolic of two important elements. Absurd plays often contradict the notion
that there is always a reason behind the occurrence of things and events in our
everyday life. The leak is used to symbolize that the way events and incidents
happen sometimes are beyond logic and a rational explanation. It also
highlights the power of myths and miracles that impact our life in an
inexplicable way.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The Boots<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">La Surette approaches
the author for the money to pay for the gas bill but later he places more
importance on the boots than the money. The boots here symbolize the absurd
desires of human beings. Human beings have unlimited desires and wants but
there is a lack of rational explanation for these desires. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">We do not know why we
want some things and we often do not know why we do not want some other things
in life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The Weeping
Maid<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Leonie, the maid is a
minor character who is a member of the author’s house. She ushers all the
visitors and the guests who come with their problems to the author. But all the
while, she is found to be weeping throughout the play. A certain degree of
suspense is maintained by Anouilh, until towards the end when we are informed
that she had been weeping because she had become pregnant. Both the Author and
Ardele are oblivious of her pregnancy and pay no heed to her sufferings. She is
left on her own to fight her own battles. Her weeping is symbolic of the
physical and mental sufferings that people go through in the walks of their
daily life. It is also suggestive of how other people desert us in times of
distress to face the problems of our own life although we have been living
under the same roof. Poor people like the maid are exploited by powerful men;
their woes unheard, their pains undivided and left to strive and struggle on
their own.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Falling Picture<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">The falling picture symbolizes:</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN">The wife’s temperament: Whenever Ardele leaves the study slamming the door, the picture falls down. It happens from the beginning of the play whenever she quarrels with her husband. The falling picture here shows that Ardele is a short tempered lady.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN">The problems of marital life: It clearly reveals in the play the theme that if the husband and the wife do not have mutual trust then there will be quarrels and unrest in the house.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN">The author’s character as a patient man: In the play Ardele addresses the Author angrily for three times and on all these occasion her slamming the door makes the picture to fall down. Whenever it happens the Author calmly picks it up and hangs it back without showing ill temper towards his wife. This clearly shows that the Author is a very patient, cool and composed man with immense tolerance. </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN">To add a comic element to the play amidst the tensions of the
author’s marital life: Whenever Ardele and the Author quarrel the scene becomes serious, but in the middle of this seriousness the falling picture gives opportunity to the audience to laugh at it.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN">Disorder and chaos: At the end of the play the ceiling collapses and cascades of water flows all over the room, even the pictures fall down from the walls as well, here the falling picture symbolises disorder and chaos (confusion) in the scene.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Some Satirical elements in the Play:</span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></b>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-weight: bold;">Satire on Media:</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">In its Satire on Media madame Bessarabo is the target. She has come all the way from Rumania to France just to interview the Author about his last play and especially to know what he feels about <b>Love, </b>but often she is seen to deviate from the topic and discuss about other unimportant matters.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">This particular situation also shows that the media can go to any length/extent for a sensational story. Here the media has been portrayed as taking undue advantage over the Author's private affairs and weakness.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b>Satire on celebrities: </b>The celebrities are satired through the character of the Author. Their behaviors are also ridiculed towards the end of the play where the Author is no more calm and behaves agitated. </span></div>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">CONFLICTS,
ISSUES & PROBLEMS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Marital Discord<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The
ludicrous quarrel between Ardele and the author point out the complexity and
the triviality of disagreement and strife between spouses. It also portrays the
incompatibility and the conflict of egos and ideas between married couples even
after they have been through together for around twelve years. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Infidelity</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">In some
marriages there is a loss of faith between couples as years roll by. Partners
become unfaithful and disloyal and tend to suspect each other’s fidelity. In
the drama we have Ardele who becomes envious of many female characters. She
sneers at the journalist. She picks up a quarrel with Leon’s ex-wife. And slaps
the author for addressing Gustave as “Darling!”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">In-law Hassles <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The
intrusion of one’s parents in the family is also seen as aggravating family
discords. Ardela is annoyed at the mother’s presence in the house. The mother
says that she is living separately because of Ardele’s presence in her son’s
life. The mother and Ardele are not able to put up under the same roof,
indicating to us that there is almost always some source of difficulty between
the mother and the daughter in-law to cope up with each other. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Possessiveness<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Anouilh
gives us a slight hint that women try to possess their husbands although they
want to dispossess them. It is likely that Ardela is trying to attract the
author’s attention when she says that she is leaving the house. It’s very
amusing when she prolongs her departure because there is no one to look after
Glothaire. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 11.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Absurdity of marriage<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 11.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Anouilh
subtly brings up the absurdities of marriage and tries to question its
significance in one’s life through Ardelle and the author, Gontran and
Lucienne, and Leon and Madam Pripon Minet. In case of Gontran, he has already
left Lucienne but it is absurd when he complains of her deceiving him. Moreover
he is of the mind that he loves Lea and doesn’t want Ardelle to call Lea a
‘stick’ or a ‘shriveled prune’. The unknown woman, on the other hand, is in
search of her ex-husband. She wants him to help her find a new flat to lodge
in. Through all these Anouilh points out the absurd nature of men and women in
marriages. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
PURPOSES OF VISITS OF THE CHARACTERS <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The Journalist &
The Photographer<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The first visitor is Madame Bessarabo and with her is her photographer.
She is a Rumanian journalist who smokes like a ‘chimney sweep’. She has come to
see the Author with an appointment along
with her photographer, who is weighed down with his equipments. She is a
spell-bound audience of the author. Her country-men also idolize the author’s play ,‘La
Marguerite’ which made a great
impression in <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bucharest</st1:place></st1:city>.
The press was unanimous and had almost been staged for the 4<sup>th</sup> time
but the general opinion was that it was a little hard. Rumanians were such great
idealists that they believed enormously in sentiments. In fact this
explains why she has come to see the author. She wants to know what the author
really thinks about love and wants to make it known to her intelligentsia who
are said to be eagerly waiting for the Author’s opinion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The Plumbers<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The next visitors are the two Plumbers. These two plumbers visit the
author to mend the leak in the author’s house. They seemed to be young and
amiable in the way they teased the maid, Leonie. And seemed to be careless in
the way they came into the study where the author and Madame Bessarabo were
having their interview. They feel the walls in silence with an air of great
mystery weaving around everyone and almost knocked down the photographer. They
then get out by another door without a word. They have come to mend the leak
but instead they cause a great problem whereby the water trickles all over the
place. On top of that, they give out all the information relating to the
author’s extra accommodation which the author was actually trying to conceal
from the inspector.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The Mother<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The third visitor is the author’s Mother. She is a mother who wants to
have more and more flats in contrast with her old age. She had lost her lawsuit
too. She doesn’t want to live with her son because she knows that her son’s
wife (Ardele) is shrewd. She has come to see her son because she wanted him to
buy her a new flat. After she reaches there, she comes to know more about the
other flats which are for sale. She wants her son to buy them too for her.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Lasurette<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Lasurette
visits next. He is a tramp, still young. He was in the army and served the
country together with the author. He saved the author from being
court-martialled the time he mislaid his bayonet. He comes to seek help
especially money because his gas is going to be cut off. He has not paid the
gas bills for nine months. He had come
to the author's place just a week ago and was given seven thousand Francs. He
also wants a pair of boots from the author. Because he had lent his bayonet to
the author and had saved him from being court-martialed, he thinks he had saved
the author from death and that the author should be indebted to him eternally
and that he has the right to ask the author for whatever he needed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">With
the entry of La Surette, the tramp in the latter part of the Drama we come to
know that La Surette and the author once were together in the army. La Surette
reminds the author of the favour that he had done during their times together
every time he approaches the author. When they were about to go for a parade,
Jacques mislaid the bayonet of his gun. At this critical juncture, La Surette
lent his bayonet to the author putting his own life at stake. If the latter had
not saved the author he would have been court-martialed or suspended from duty
thus getting in between the devil and the deep blue sea. Jacques still
remembers the favour he has received from La Surette and he is grateful for all
that he has done. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">On the
contrary, La Surette seems to ask more than what he deserves. He thinks he has
earned the right to ask anything from the author anytime he wants. He assumes
that the author is greatly indebted to him for the new lease of life he has
given by saving him from the possible court-martial. He thinks that the help
and the favour rendered by him cannot be compensated even if the author gave
his life. So, he feels that he can ask for anything from the author – anything
big or small in terms of material value. In other words, La Surette is a
parasite on the author.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The Housing
Inspector<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The Housing inspector is the next visitor. He wears his black uniform
and visits the author to inspect whether the complaint lodged against him for
his insufficient occupation of the premises was true? He wants to put in
Brigadier Lapomme, a father of eight if
the complaint is found to be true. On seeing Madame Bessarabo and the
photographer he shows a sly concern. He forewarns the author and informs that
he will send three other policemen, a Brigadier and the two recruits. He warns
to send along some oldage pensioners none under hundred.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Gontran<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Gontran
visits next who is a giant of a man. He has left his wife Lucienne and now is
in love with Lea. He has come to share his personal feelings and talk about his
awful life after he left Lucienne. It seems that he still loves her though
nothing is left between them as of now. He writes and calls her to no avail. He
thinks that she is deceiving him. He wants the author to advice him and seeks
solace from him. Unable to bear the pain of lost love and the taunts from
Ardelle, he faints in the arms of the author.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Features of the Absurd Dramaa;</span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">UNCONVENTIONAL
PLOT, THEME AND DIALOGUES<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The play follows unconventional plot structures, theme and dialogues.
Neither the scenes nor the time is put properly in the play. Conventional norms
have been forgone to purposefully comment on the purposelessness and the
meaninglessness of human existence. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The
events in this play are not logically connected to each other, and to an
average audience, meaningless.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The arrangement and the timing of events are haphazard. For instance
Ardelle pops into the scene irregularly at her own discretion and we do not
know whether she is present in the house at other times when the author in
engaged with other characters. Her irregular interruptions make no sense at
all. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The interview is cut short several times with interventions from other
characters but when they continue again they begin as if they have progressed a
lot actually when nothing has been achieved.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The phone calls especially Gustave’s, consume a significant amount of
time. The anecdotes he relates to the author has no relevancy to the author, he
seems least bothered about what Gustave is saying. Nonetheless from the other end we have Gustave putting
his heart and soul in explaining everything he has on his table.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The maid’s pregnancy is one that is very difficult to understand.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The
actions of the characters are senseless, useless and absurd.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Ø<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The author is bewildered, troubled, and strangely threatened by a large
number of visitors who each bring a bag of problems to him.. He has no control
over what is happening in his life or his house. The final scene where he is
shouting for everyone to be calm, while he himself is losing control shows him
as a true absurd protagonist.</span><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Distrust
of language as a means of communication;<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Language in Episode in
the Life an Author is shown as an unreliable and insufficient tool of
communication; the broken dialogues and conversation between Ardelle and the
unknown woman (Leon’s wife), the interview between Madam Bessarabo and the Author
are some examples of this use of language. In this way, conventional speech
seems to act as a barrier between the characters rather than serve as a means
of communication.</span><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "rockwell" , "serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
important questions and answers:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">d</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">escribe
the opening scene of the play.
Or<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Describe the quarrel scene between the Author and
his wife Ardele.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ans: The play begins with the appearance of the
Author and his wife Ardele in a very angry and agitated mood, each of them
banging on the table in the study room in anger. This was all because the
Author found a letter in the closet ending with ‘my own love’ and doubted that
the letter was from the lover of Ardele. Ardele on the other hand feels
terribly angry and humiliated over the allegation. She simply cannot tolerate that
her husband is doubting her for some extra-marital affair and he has secretly
searched her drawer and closet. She tries to explain that the letter was from
her sister but the Author refuse to believe her saying that her sister, being
uneducated, cannot write such letter. Moreover he alleges that the letter is
with masculine ending. Ardele feels cheated and betrayed because this
allegation has come after living together with her husband for 12 years. She
feel so angry and frustrated that she decides to separate from Author and go to
her sister’s place. However the arrival of Madam Bessarabo, the Rumanian
journalist puts an end to the quarrel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">w</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ith
close reference to the play ‘Episode in the life of an Author’ prove that
this play is a ‘Farce’ and belongs to the Theatre of the Absurd</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The play written by the famous French dramatist Jean
Anouilh and under analysis is a typical example of a ‘Farce’, a sub genre of
the Theatre of the Absurd. The theatre of absurd propagates the philosophy of
life being an absurd phenomenon and ‘Farce’ is a low grade comedy mainly aiming
for creating scenes of laughter by creating humorous scenes and wits. Overall
such play does not have any sequence of events or logical order of happenings.
To get a more clear picture of whether the play is a farce or not and whether
it belongs to the Theatre of Absurd or not we have to review the important
features of absurd drama. Following are the main features of absurd drama:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It
has unusual plot, theme, dialogues and actions which makes it different from
other traditional plays.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
events, actions are illogical, senseless, often useless, confusing, absurd and
totally beyond the understanding of the common audience.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Often
situations are funny absurd and often there is a lack of sequence of events<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
characters are often caught in a chaotic situation and find it very difficult
to understand its place in the universe. They are often confused and under lots
of meaningless pressures and tensions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Often
the inadequacy of language for communication is also exposed and it is shown
that language is an unreliable and insufficient tool of communication.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We find all the above mentioned features prominently
present and making the main construct of the drama. Thus there is no hesitation
to say that the play is a very suitable example of ‘Farce’ and it belongs to
the theatre of absurd.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Describe
the character of Madam Bessarabo in your own words</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Madam Bessarabo is a Rumanian journalist and she has
come to interview the author about his play ‘La Maruerite’. She also wants to
get the view of author about love as she feels that the author has been bit
harsh while dealing with love in his play. She is one of the most important
minor characters in the play. We find two very strong character traits in Madam
Bessarabo. Firstly she is a lady who uses flattery to impress the author.
Without any hesitation she says everything French is extraordinary and
Rumanians are very much devoted to everything that is French. Secondly she is
boasting because when the housing inspector came to check the house of the
author she introduced herself as Princesses Bessarabo. She appears clever too
as she knew how to impress somebody and get what she exactly wanted as a
journalist.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="4" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How
does the character of the Housing Inspector, the Man in Black, add to the
comedy and humour of the play</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Housing Inspector or the ‘Man in Black’ is yet
another important minor character adding some extra flavour to the comedy and
the humour of the drama. He has come to enquire about the underutilization of
the house occupied by the author. He is always appearing very serious and
extremely dedicated and dutiful. He questions furiously and takes notes of
whatever is spoken by anybody there without even thinking that they are not the
part of the house. He keeps on adding some new charges against the author
without checking the validity of his allegations. He appears silly and funny as
well when he is frantically taking notes and serious preparing reports even
under the water fall.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="5" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">L</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ist
down some of the funny incidents of the play</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Being a funny play belonging to the genre of Farce
this play is full of funny and humorous scenes. The list below is indicative of
all the funny and humorous scenes in the play:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">t</span><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">he opening scene funny
argument between the Author and his wife Ardele over a trivial issue of letter
in which the wife threatens to leave and the author laughs nastily.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Madam
Bessarabo talking with the Author flatteringly and appearing as if she likes
everything that the Author says or does.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele
appearance on the stage in a bathing robe and charging the Author for
intentionally cutting off the water supply without verifying the fact.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
woman calling repeatedly over phone and claiming that the Author was her first
husband, jasmine one two one two.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Author’s
mother and the woman talking over phone and discussing about the apartment.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele
talking angrily with the woman over phone thinking that she was Author’r
girlfriend.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele’s
seriousness, anger and frustration while she was talking with the Author about
the cat.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
House Inspector visiting and noting everything that he heard without checking
out the relevance.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
scene when the Author is having argument with La Surret.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
scene when Gontran and Ardele argue about Lea.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gontran
sobbing like a child and fainting in the arm of the Author.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Plumbers
working stupidly and spoiling the whole thing rather than repairing the leak.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
scene of Ardele firing bullet at the Author blindly and the Author frantically
dozing the bullet. <span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="6" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">w</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">hy
does Liliane Tresor refuse to act in Gustave’s film initially? And upon
what condition did she agree again to act and why?<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Liliane Tresor is the actress who has agreed to play
the lead role and die in line with the script of the film ‘The Woman with the
Boas’ directed by Gustv. But later she refuses to die. However after sometime
once again she agrees to die provided the director makes her die with
consumption (TB). Instead the author suggest yet another climax and says that
if she turns religious and joins a convent then the film would sell better
especially in Canada and Channel Islands. Finally they agree to have the climax
in the form of fire and gun fire. This dispute must be because the actress
wanted her death to be not as the repercussion of her character traits but something
else so that she could win the sympathy of the viewers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="7" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">c</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">omment
on the role and the significance of La Surette in the play.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">La Surette in this play is one of the important
minor characters. Though La Surrette appears to be like a beggar in the play who
often comes to the Author for asking favours but earlier the Author and La
Surette served the army together. During that period La Surette had helped the
Author by saving him from being court martialled when he has misplace his
bayonet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Very much in line with the tone and treatment of the
play La Surette provides lots of fun, humour and amusement in this play. His
character and activities adds enormously to the comic impact of the play.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="8" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">d</span></b><b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">o
you find any touch of satirical elements in the play? Justify your answer</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Though, this play is exclusively a play belonging to
the ‘Theatre of Absurd’ aiming to create and provide lots of fun, humour and
comedy to the readers and audience but we cannot miss the touch of satirical
element too if we analyse it closely and critically. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The first touch of satirical element we find when we
study the treatment of media in this play. Madam Bessarabo, who represents
media, often appears to have deviated from her primary task. Her flattery seems
to hinting that media is not always neutral and objective. Further, when she is
taking the picture of the Author in his angry appearance, it shows that media
can go to any extent to get a thrilling and sensational story. Media also
appears to be interfering in the private affairs of the Author’s life. These
are all the harsh reality to media to a great extent in the modern time and
hence could be considered satirical.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Secondly the play also satirizes the famous
personalities and proves that they too, like all the common mass, are human beings
and thus equally loaded with the human weaknesses like anger and absurdity of
life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-44274116388151998342013-09-03T10:04:00.001+06:002013-09-09T14:06:49.181+06:00Interchange of Direct and Indirect/Reported Speech.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Quoting the exact words of the speaker is called “The
Direct Speech”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><span style="color: red;">Sarah said, “I am writing a letter now”</span><span style="color: #ff6600;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Reporting of what a speaker said without quoting his
exact words is called ‘Indirect Speech’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><span style="color: red;">Sarah said that she was writing a letter then.</span><span style="color: #ff6600;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><span style="color: red;"><br /></span></span></b></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 657px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #0E7500 2.25pt; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #0E7500 2.25pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 168.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="225"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: red;">Direct Speech<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #0E7500 2.25pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #0E7500 2.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: red;">-<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #0E7500 2.25pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #0E7500 2.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 256.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="342"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: red;">Indirect Speech</span><span style="color: #0e7500;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 168.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="225"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>now<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 256.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="342"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>then<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 168.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="225"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>here<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 256.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="342"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>there<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 168.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="225"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>this<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 256.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="342"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>that<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 168.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="225"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>these<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 256.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="342"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>those<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 168.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="225"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>ago<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 256.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="342"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>before<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 168.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="225"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>thus<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 256.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="342"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>so<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 168.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="225"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>to-day<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 256.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="342"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>that
day<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 168.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="225"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>to-night<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 256.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="342"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>that
night<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 168.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="225"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>yesterday<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 256.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="342"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>the
day before (or)<br />
the previous day<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 168.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="225"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>tomorrow<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 256.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="342"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>the
next day (or)<br />
the following day<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 168.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="225"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>last
week<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #EFEFEF; border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 256.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="342"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>the
week before<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 168.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="225"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>next
week<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 256.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="342"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>the
week after</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: x-small;">·</span><span style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">If the reporting verb is in the Present or
Future tense (e.g., say, will say) there is no change in the tense of the verb
in the Indirect speech.<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Antony says, “I eat a
mango”.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(D.S.)<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Antony says, that he eats
a mango”.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(I.S.)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">If Reporting Verb is in the Past Tense. the
tense of the verbs in the reported speech or Indirect Speech must be generally
changed.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">1. Present Tense in the Direct becomes p.ast tense.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> John said, “I write a
letter”.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(D.S)<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> John said that she wrote
a letter.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(I.S)<br />
<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">2. Past Tense in the direct
becomes past perfect or remains unchanged.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> Angel said, “I brought a
pen yesterday”.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(D.S)<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> Angel said that she had
bought a pen the day before.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(I.S)<br />
<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">3. Present Continuous in
the direct becomes past continuous.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> John said, “I am going to
church”.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(D.S)<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> John said that he was
going to church.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(I.S)<br />
<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">4. Past Continuous in the
direct becomes past perfect continuous.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Nelson said, “I was
playing cricket”.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(D.S)<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Nelson said that he had
been playing cricket.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(I.S)<br />
<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">5. Present Perfect in the
direct becomes past perfect.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Kamal said, “I have done
my home work”.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(D.S)<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Kamal said that he had
done his home work.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(I.S)<br />
<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">6. Present Perfect
Continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> He said, “I have been
reading a novel”.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(D.S)<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> He said that he had been
reading a novel.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(I.S)<br />
<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">7. ‘Will’ and ‘Shall’ are
changed to ‘would’.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> He said, “I will go to
London tomorrow”.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(D.S)<br />
</span><b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> He said that he would go
to London the next day.</span></b><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span></span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">(I.S)</span>
<br />
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">8. </span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 159.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>may<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: .5in;" valign="bottom" width="48"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 184.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="246"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>might<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 159.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>can<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: .5in;" valign="bottom" width="48"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 184.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="246"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>could<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 159.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="213"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>must<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: .5in;" valign="bottom" width="48"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #CCCCCC .75pt; padding: 5.25pt 11.25pt 5.25pt 11.25pt; width: 184.5pt;" valign="bottom" width="246"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>had
to (or) must</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; letter-spacing: .75pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">John said, “I must go now”.</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(D.S)<br />
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">John said that she must
(or) had to go then.</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><span style="color: #444444;">(I.S)</span>
<br />
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Exception to the above
rule:</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br />
</span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">If the direct speech
contains the Universal Truth, the tense of the direct speech remains unchanged
even if the reporting verb is in the past.</span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br />
<br />
</span><span style="color: #444444;"><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">The teacher said, “The
sun rises in the East”.</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(D.S)<br />
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">The teacher said that the
sun rises in the East.</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><span style="color: #444444;">(I.S)</span>
<br />
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Statement (or) Assertive
Sentence</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Rules :</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Remove the quotation marks in the statement<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Use the conjuction<b> ‘that’</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Change the reporting verb<b> ‘say to’</b> into <b>‘tell’</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Change the reporting verb<b> ‘said to’</b> into <b>‘told’</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Note :</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">He said that (correct)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">He told me that (correct)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><s><span style="color: red; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; letter-spacing: .75pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He told that</span></s><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">(Incorrect)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">1. “I
will work hard to get first class” said Lazar (D.S.)<br />
Lazar said he would work hard to get first class. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
2. “You can do this work” said Nelson to Johnsi (D.S.)<br />
Nelson told Johnsi that he could do that work. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
3. He says, “I am glad to be here this evening”(D.S.)<br />
He says that he is glad to be there that evening. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
4. “I‘m going to the library now” said David (D.S.)<br />
David said that he was going to the library then. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Imperative Sentence (Order
or Request) </span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Rules:</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Remove the <b>quotation mark</b> in an Imperative sentence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Use ‘<b>to</b>’ if it is an affirmative sentence. (without
don‘t)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Use ‘<b>not to</b>’ if the sentence begins without Don‘t.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Don‘t use ‘<b>that</b>’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Omit the word ‘<b>please</b>’. Use the word ‘<b>request</b>’ instead of
‘<b>say</b>’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">If the direct speech contains a request or a command, the
reporting verb<b> (say, said)</b> change to <b>tell, request, order, command etc</b>. In its
correct tense.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">1.
“Don‘t talk in the class” said the teacher to the boys. (D.S.)<br /> The teacher advised the boys not to talk in the class. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
2. “Please give me something to eat. I am hungry” the old man said to them.
(D.S.)<br /> The old man requested them to give him something to eat and said that he was hungry (I.S.)<br />
<br />
3. “Be careful” said he to her. (D.S.)<br />
<br /> He ordered her to be careful. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
4. “Bring me a cup of tea” said Nelson to John. (D.S.)<br />
<br /> Nelson asked John to bring him a cup of tea. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Interrogative Sentence
(Questions)</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Rules :</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Remove the <b>quotation marks and question mark</b> in the
interrogative sentence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Use <b>‘if’ or ‘whether’</b> if the sentence inside the
quotation marks begins with a helping verb (Auxiliary verb).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Use the given interrogative word (what, when, where, why,
who, whom, whose, which, now etc.) if it does not begin with the helping verb.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Don‘t use ‘that’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Change the reporting verb (say, said) into ‘ask’ or
‘enquire’ in its correct tense.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Omit helping verb like <b>‘do, does, did’</b>. But don’t omit
them when they are with <b>‘not’</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">1.
“Won’t you help me to caary this box?” said I to my friend. (D.S.)<br /> I asked my friend if he would not help me to carry that box. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
2. Mohan said to Stalin, “Why did not you attend the meeting yesterday”? (D.S.)<br /> Mohan asked Stalin why he had not attended the meeting the day before. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
3.“How often do you go to the theatre?” said David to John. (D.S.)<br /> David asked John how often he went to the theatre. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
4. Mohamed said to Sultan, “Do you like mangoes?” (D.S.)<br /> Mohamed asked Sultan if he liked mangoes. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Exclamatory Sentence </span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Rules:</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Change the exclamatory sentence into satement or
Assertive<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Remove the <b>quotation marks and exclamatory mark</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Use the conjunction ‘<b>that</b>’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Omit the interjections such as<b> Oh, O, Alas, how, what,
hurrah</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Add the word ‘<b>very</b>’ to the adjective or adverb if
necessary.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">If the verb is not given, use <b>‘Be’ </b>form verb <b>(is, was,
are, were, am)</b> in its correct tense according to the subject.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Change the reporting verb<b> (say, said)</b> to <b>‘exclaim
joyfully</b>’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">Use ‘<b>exclaim</b>’ sorrowfully for sorrowful incidents.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;">1. “O,
what a beautiful flower that is!” said she. (D.S.)<br /> She exclaimed joyfully that that was a very beautiful flower. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
2. “What a horrible sight!” we all exclaimed. (D.S.)<br /> We all exclaimed that it was a very horrible sight. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
3. “Alas! I have broken my brother’s watch” said he.<br /> He exclaimed sorrowfully that he had broken his brothers watch. (I.S.)<br />
<br />
4. “How beautiful she is!” said Boon. (D.S.)<br /> Boon exclaimed joyfully that she was very beautiful. (I.S.)</span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.75pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-78959076145022328682013-09-03T09:52:00.001+06:002013-09-09T14:07:25.172+06:00ACTIVE / PASSIVE VOICE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A sentence
in the active form can be changed into the passive form. Similarly a sentence
in the passive form can be changed into the active form.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Active:
Brutus <b>stabbed</b> Caesar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Passive:
Caesar <b>was stabbed</b> by Brutus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Active:
The boy <b>killed</b> the spider.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Passive:
The spider <b>was killed </b>by the boy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Active:
The teacher <b>punished</b> the boy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Passive:
The boy <b>was punished</b> by the teacher.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Active:
His behavior <b>vexes</b> me.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Passive:
I <b>am vexed</b> by his behavior.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Notes:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
When it is clear who the agent (doer of the action) is, it is not necessary to
mention it in the passive form. In fact, this omission often makes the sentence
look neater.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Active:
The audience loudly <b>cheered </b>the Mayor’s speech.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Passive:
The Mayor’s speech <b>was loudly cheered</b> (by the audience).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The active
voice is preferred when the agent (i.e. the person who performs the action) is
to be made prominent. The passive voice is preferred when the agent is unknown
or when we do not care to mention the agent.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
passive form is preferred in the following sentences because the agent is
either unknown or unimportant.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Passive:
My pocket<b> has been picked.</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Active:
Somebody <b>has picked</b> my pocket.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Passive:
I shall be obliged to go.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Active:
Circumstances <b>will oblige</b> me to go.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Passive:
Promises <b>should be kept.</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Active:
One <b>should keep</b> one’s promises.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ACITVE AND PASSIVE
VOICE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
sentence can be written in either active voice or passive voice without
changing the meaning of it. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When
the verb in a sentence shows that the subject is the doer of the action, the
verb is in the active voice.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Examples:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 39pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Children painted
these pictures. (Children – subject; painted – verb; pictures – object)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 39pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">James writes a
letter (James – subject; writes – verb; letter – object)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When
the verb in a sentence shows that the subject is not the doer of the action,
the verb is in the passive voice. (Generally you will find “by” in the
sentence. If “by” is not there, you can put a question “Who?”, you will get an
answer.) <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Examples:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">These pictures were painted by
children: (pictures – subject; painted – verb; children - object<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A letter is written by James
(letter – subject, written – verb; James – Object)<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rules
for conversion from Active to Passive Voice</span></u></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The subject and object are
interchanged<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The preposition BY is added before
the object<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The verb is changed to past
participle (3<sup>rd</sup> form of
verb)<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A new auxiliary is added to the
Past Participle form of verb.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">If the subject or the object in an
active voice sentence is a pronoun (I, we, you, he, she, they, it) it
changes: (I-me; we-us; you-you; he-him; she-her; they-them; it-it) and
vice-versa. e.g. I wrote a letter –
A letter was written by me. The prefect does keep accusing me daily – I am
being accused by the prefect daily.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">If the subject in the active voice
sentence is unknown or unimportant or obvious, by + object is omitted. We
make butter from cow’s milk. Butter is made from cow’s milk.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">If the verb in the active voice
sentence has a modal in it, the verb is changed to – modal + be + the past
participle. e.g. Rajesh can lift
this box. This box can be lifted by Rajesh. We should obey the rules. The
rules should be obeyed.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">When there are two objects, only
one object is interchanged. The second object remains unchanged. (He told
me a story – He- subject; me – object 1; a story – object 2) ( I was told
a story by him; A story was told to me by him)<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
table below shows how the verb is changed into its passive voice form in
different tenses.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 480;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 162.9pt;" valign="top" width="217"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tense<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 153.0pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Active Voice<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.5pt;" valign="top" width="282"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Passive Voice<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 162.9pt;" valign="top" width="217"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The simple present<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 153.0pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He eats an apple<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.5pt;" valign="top" width="282"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An apple is eaten by him.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 162.9pt;" valign="top" width="217"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The present continuous<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 153.0pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He is eating an apple.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.5pt;" valign="top" width="282"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An apple is being eaten by him.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 162.9pt;" valign="top" width="217"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The present perfect<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 153.0pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He has eaten an apple.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.5pt;" valign="top" width="282"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An apple has been eaten by him.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 162.9pt;" valign="top" width="217"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The simple past<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 153.0pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He ate an apple.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.5pt;" valign="top" width="282"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An apple was eaten by him.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 162.9pt;" valign="top" width="217"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The past continuous<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 153.0pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He was eating an apple<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.5pt;" valign="top" width="282"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An apple was being eaten by him<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 162.9pt;" valign="top" width="217"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The past perfect<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 153.0pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He had eaten an apple<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.5pt;" valign="top" width="282"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An apple had been eaten by him<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 162.9pt;" valign="top" width="217"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The simple future<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 153.0pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He will eat an apple<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.5pt;" valign="top" width="282"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An apple will be eaten by him.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 162.9pt;" valign="top" width="217"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Future continuous<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 153.0pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He will be eating an apple.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.5pt;" valign="top" width="282"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An apple will have been eaten by him.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 162.9pt;" valign="top" width="217"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Future in the past<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 153.0pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He would have eaten an apple<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.5pt;" valign="top" width="282"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An apple would have been eaten by him<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note:
Some of the sentences like – sentences constructed using auxiliary verbs (Tashi is a good boy); perfect continuous tenses ( in all the three time periods
– Present, Past, Future) (My room mate has been copying my homework) and
intransitive verbs ( I go to temple or she has gone to the market) cannot be
converted into passive form .</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 480;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.9pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: red;">TENSES<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 193.5pt;" valign="top" width="258"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: red;">ACTIVE FORM<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.95in;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: red;">PASSIVE FORM<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.9pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">SIMPLE PRESENT <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;"> OR<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">PRESENT INDEFINITE</span>.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b>Used to
present a habit or routine.</b><o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 193.5pt;" valign="top" width="258"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->S + V<sup>1</sup> OR V<sup>5</sup> + O + E
(extension)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->I + teach (V<sup>1</sup>) + English.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->He + teaches (V<sup>5</sup>) + English.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="color: red;">Use of V<sup>1</sup>& V<sup>5<o:p></o:p></sup></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->V<sup>1</sup> if subject is I, we, you, they,
or any plural noun and V<sup>5</sup> if subject is he, she, it, or a singular
noun.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.95in;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->O + A.V (is, am, are) + V<sup>3 </sup>+ by +
agent.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->English + is + taught + by + me.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->English + is + taught + by + him.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Subject changes into agent.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Pronoun subjects change into agent by changing
its form into object pronoun i.e. ‘me’ for ‘I’ and ‘him’ for ‘he’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->If the subject is a name, it remains the same<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 38.65pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 38.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.9pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">PRESENT CONTINUOUS <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;"> OR<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">PRESENT IMPERFECT</span></b><span style="color: magenta;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Used to show continuity of action in present
context.<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 38.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 193.5pt;" valign="top" width="258"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->S + A.V.(is, am, are) + V<sup>4</sup> + O + E<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->I + am + writing + a letter.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->He + is + writing + a letter<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="color: red;">Use of A.V.(Auxiliary Verbs)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I
am<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
He, she, it & singular noun is<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
We, you, they, & plural noun are<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 38.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.95in;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->O+ A.V(is, am, are) + being + V<sup>3</sup> +
by + agent<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->A letter + is + being + written + by + me.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->A letter + is + being + written + by + him.<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.9pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">PRESENT PERFECT</span>.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Used to present the action that has completed
just before some time or immediate past.<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 193.5pt;" valign="top" width="258"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->S + A.V.(have, has) + V<sup>3</sup> + O + E<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->I + have + made + a nice chair<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->He + has + solved + the problem<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="color: red;">Use of ‘have’ and ‘has’<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->‘has’ is used with he, she, it and a singular
noun; with other subjects we use ‘have’ as A. V.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.95in;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->O + A.V.(have, has) + been + V<sup>3 </sup>+
by + agent<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->A nice chair + has + been + made by + me.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->The problem +has +been +solved + by + him<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.9pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Used to represent an action that has started
before and is still going on.<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 193.5pt;" valign="top" width="258"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->S + A.V.(have, has) + been + V<sup>4</sup> + O
+ since/for + time.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->I have been playing football since childhood.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->He has been practicing mask dance for fifteen
years.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="color: red;">Use of ‘since’ and ‘for’<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Since – used for point of time.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
For – used for a period of time.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.95in;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: red;">NO PASSIVE FORM.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.9pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">SIMPLE PAST <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;"> OR<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">PAST INDEFINITE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Used to express
habit or routine in past context.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 193.5pt;" valign="top" width="258"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->S + V<sup>2</sup> + O + E (extension)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->I + taught (V<sup>2</sup>) + English.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->He + taught (V<sup>2</sup>) + English.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.95in;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->S + A.V (was, were) + V<sup>3 </sup>+ by +
agent.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->English + was + taught + by + me.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->English + was + taught + by + him.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.9pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">PAST CONTINUOUS
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">
OR<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">PAST IMPERFECT<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Used to show
continuity of action in the past context.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 193.5pt;" valign="top" width="258"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->S + A.V.(was, were) + V<sup>4</sup> + O + E<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->I + was + writing + a letter.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->He + was + writing + a letter<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="color: red;">Use of A.V.<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I, He, she, it & singular noun was<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
We, you, they, & plural noun were<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.95in;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->O+ A.V(was, were) + being + V<sup>3</sup> + by
+ agent<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->A letter + was + being + written + by + me.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->A letter + was + being + written + by + him.<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.9pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">PAST PERFECT<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Used to show a
completed action in the past context or something that was done long time
back.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 193.5pt;" valign="top" width="258"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->S + A.V.(had) + V<sup>3</sup> + O + E<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->I + had + made + a nice chair<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->He + had + solved + the problem<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.95in;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->O + A.V.(had) + been + V<sup>3 </sup>+ by +
agent<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->A nice chair + had + been + made by + me.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->The problem +had +been +solved + by + him<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.9pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Used to show an
action that had started before the said time and was going on at the said
point of time in the past.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 193.5pt;" valign="top" width="258"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->S + A.V. (had) + been + V<sup>4</sup> + O +
since/for + time.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->I have been playing football since childhood.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->He has been practicing mask dance for fifteen
years.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.95in;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: red;">NO PASSIVE FORM.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.9pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">SIMPLE FUTURE <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">
OR<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">FUTURE INDEFINITE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Used to show the
intention of doing something as a part of routine or on regular basis in
future.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 193.5pt;" valign="top" width="258"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->S + shall/will + V<sup>1</sup> + O + E<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->I + shall + teach + English.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->He + will + teach + English.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="color: red;">Use of ‘shall’ & ‘will’<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I, we, you, they and plurals shall<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
He, she, it and singulars will<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="color: #993366;">NOTE<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: red;">In modern English use of ‘will’ is
accepted with all the subjects.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.95in;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->O + shall/will + be + V<sup>3 </sup>+ by +
agent.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->English + will + be + taught + by + me.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->English + will + be + taught + by + him.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.9pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">FUTURE CONTINUOUS
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">
OR<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">FUTURE IMPERFECT<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Used to present an
action that will be going on at the said point of time in future.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 193.5pt;" valign="top" width="258"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->S + shall/will + be + V<sup>4</sup> + O + E<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->I + shall + be + writing + a letter.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->He + will + be + writing + a letter<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="color: red;">Use of A.V.<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I, He, she, it & singular noun was<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
We, you, they, & plural noun were<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.95in;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: red;">NO PASSIVE FORM.</span></b><o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.9pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">FUTURE PERFECT<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Used to express an
action that will have finished or completed by the said point of time in
future.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 193.5pt;" valign="top" width="258"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->S + shall/will + have + V<sup>3</sup> + O + E<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->I + shall + have + made + a nice chair + by
the next week<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->He + will + have + solved + the riddle + by
evening.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.95in;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->O + shall/will + have + been + V<sup>3 </sup>+
by + agent<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->A nice chair + will + have + been + made by +
me + by the next week.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->The riddle +will + have +been +solved + by +
him + by evening.<o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.9pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: magenta;">FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Used to express an
action that will have started before the said point of time in future and
will be going on at the said point of time in future.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 193.5pt;" valign="top" width="258"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->S + shall/will + have + been + V<sup>4</sup> +
O + for/from + time.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->I shall have been playing football from tomorrow.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->He will have been practicing mask dance for
fifteen years.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 3.95in;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: red;">NO PASSIVE FORM.</span></b><o:p></o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="color: #222222; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">
<!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Note:</b> Whenever it is evident who the
agent (i.e., doer of the action) is, it is unnecessary to mention him in the passive form, and this omission gives a neater turn to
the sentence. Thus in the last example the agent is not mentioned in the passive form because
only those who heard the speech could have cheered it.</span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-43033057197639321402013-08-26T20:59:00.002+06:002022-04-14T10:56:14.195+06:00Mirror Image - Lena Coakley<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 18pt;">Mirror Image <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 18pt;">- <i>Lena Coakley<o:p></o:p></i></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Sub Genre: </span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Science fiction<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Language</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Contemporary
and employs modern idiom.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Point of view</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: <span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>Third-person Narrator.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Conflict: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Man vs Man
(internal & external)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Setting</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Alice’s residence,
Hospital, and Bedford Avenue<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Theme</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: The ethics of
modern medical science, change, and family relationship.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> ‘Mirror Image’ is a very fine example of
science fiction dealing with the theme of impact of science and technology on
human and their life. In this story ‘the impact of phenomenal development in
the field of medical science on human life and society as whole is the central
theme. The story explains all the impacts, unpleasant situations, emotional
stress on Alice, the main character, and other characters involved after Alice
has undergone the brain transplanting operation. It also explains the stress,
regrets and disappointments and etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The theme of Change
in Mirror Image:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Change is
something that no one can escape from and throughout life, one experiences several
transformations. According to www.dictionary.com - to change means "to
make the form, nature, content, future course, etc., of (something) different
from what it is or from what it would be if left alone."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">In the story, the
theme of change is revealed through the characters. Change is shown through the
change in families and changes in personalities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">In "Mirror
Image" there is a big change in two families. Alice's family thinks she
has changed since her brain transplant and now the family feels different. Long
after Alice's surgery, Jenny tells Alice what she thinks of her sisters' new
way of acting. "You're a lot different…I don't know…Sometimes I think my
sister is dead.” This change is very drastic; the fact that Alice's own twin
sister feels like she is dead is a huge change for everyone in the family.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Another family
that is shown to have changed a great deal is the Jarred family. Their family
has changed because they have lost a member of their family, their daughter.
The Jarred's feel like they have been cheated out of their daughter. Seen in an
interview after the brain transplant, Mrs. Jarred explains her view on the
situation. "She's our daughter…when we signed the release form donating her
body; we didn't know they were going to bring her back to life with some new
brain. Our Gail is alive and living somewhere in Toronto and I'm not even
allowed to see her”. This change is very hard on the family because losing a
family member is very heartbreaking.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 16pt;">Rationale: <o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Mirror Image by
Lena Coakley is a scientific allegorical tale that depicts the internal quest
to find one's true self. The story takes us through the experiences of a
teenager named Alice who underwent a brain transplant into a new body as a
result of a fatal accident. Alice struggled to find her true identity and what
it was that made her Alice. The story also shows a striking resemblance to the
children's tale Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll. Both stories are
allegorical in nature and contain a similar theme. They each describe the
protagonist on their journey within themselves. Alice in Mirror Image must
discover what it is that defines her, and similarly, Alice In Wonderland must
find her way "home." This journey through Wonderland is symbolic of
the internal quest Alice faces. The allegorical pursuit to find one's true self
is developed in both stories by the protagonist's own self-reflection, and
symbolic elements throughout both stories.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">In Mirror Image
Alice undergoes deep introspection to find her true identity. She must discover
what it is that defines her. As Alice reflects on her situation she becomes
only more and more confused. She still has her mind but not her body,
"These weren't her hands. This wasn't her breath."Alice questions
whether she is still truly herself. Alice begins to explore the other elements
of her defining features, her mind, and her soul. Because she can no longer take
refuge in her body she begins to identify herself by her mind. As Alice tells
her twin sister Jenny "My brain is me." This does not seem to be
enough to convince others, however. Jenny remains skeptical of her sister by
refusing to let Alice read her diary and by her statement at their birthday
party "Sometimes I think my sister is dead". Alice then turns to
memories of her father for comfort. She felt that he would "just look into
[her] eyes and know who was in [there]." Her father used to tell her that
the "eyes were the mirror to the soul". At the end of the story when
she asked Mr. Jarred to look into her eyes Alice found herself. She discovered
that what defined her was not her body or her brain. It was a deeper, almost
spiritual essence we call the soul.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Science
fiction: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It’s a kind of literature that deals with the impact
of science and scientific development on human beings and society. Existing
knowledge, theories and practices help as the background and the author
presents a picture of future by mixing the existing background along with his
imagination. Science fictions are compulsorily futuristic in its approach and
nature.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">A short
story/novel in which futuristic technology or otherwise altered scientific principles
contribute in a significant way to the adventures. Often the short story novel
assumes a set of rules or principles or facts and then traces their logical
consequences in some form. For example, given that a man discovers how to make
himself invisible, what might happen?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><b>Examples:</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12pt;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">H. G. Wells, <i>The
Invisible Man<o:p></o:p></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12pt;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Aldous Huxley, <i>Brave
New World<o:p></o:p></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12pt;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Arthur C.
Clarke, <i>2001: A Space Odyssey<o:p></o:p></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 12pt;">ü<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Too bad, <i>Issac
Asimov(Class XI-Reading and Literature)<o:p></o:p></i></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Allegory: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">A figurative
work in which a surface narrative carries a secondary, symbolic or metaphorical
meaning.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The story is
about self-realization, the ability to form an opinion about oneself through
the eyes of the mirror around you. The
story is written in a series of vignettes<b> </b>where the author presents to us the first human brain cells transplant and the question that arises with it,
unfolding the plot. How do scientists hope this procedure will benefit humans
in the future? Would the person have difficulty getting adjusted to the new
body? Who would she belong to – to the parents of the body, or the parents of
the brain? It focuses on the internal turmoil of the person living in a society
that focuses so intently on physical appearance. Alice, the protagonist of the
story goes through traumatic events that affect her life and the people around
her. The story deals with family relationships, pride, and media power.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Nonetheless, the
author also shows that out of the process of her struggle, Alice gains pride
and grows as an individual and as a family member. The carefully chosen words
in the story subtly bring out the possible consequences and the possible
solutions to an advancement that can be done through modern science.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Vignette</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: A <b>vignette</b>
is a short, impressionistic scene that focuses on one moment or gives a
trenchant impression about a character, an idea, or a setting. This type of
scene is more common in recent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_theater" title="Postmodern theater"><span color="windowtext" style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">postmodern theater</span></a>, where less emphasis is
placed on adhering to the conventions of theatrical structure and story
development. Vignettes have been particularly influenced by contemporary
notions of a scene as shown in the film, video, and television scripting. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">This
story has been written through a series of small and important events and
episodes from the life of the main character and other minor and supporting
characters in the story. These small events and episodes are called <b>VIGNETTES</b>. To understand the story
properly the reader should join these <b>VIGNETTES</b>
together and see it as a whole.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Critical summary:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">What is
identity?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Identity is the
basic characteristics that determine a person's or things' fact of being. The
short story "Mirror Image" illiterates this best with its different
conflicts pertaining not only to physical attributes but also to mental,
emotional, and even spiritual factors as well.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">In this short
story, Lena Coakley expresses the idea that these factors contribute to a person’s
identity as a whole and not in a single attribute. Also, a society or other
people can have a certain image of a person's identity. They see these
characteristics in their everyday actions, such as their speech, the way they
move, and the way they act. It can also be a way a person feels around someone
else. These are all attributes other people can see in a person to make their
identity different from everyone else's. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">‘Mirror Image’
is about Alice, a fourteen-year-old girl who undergoes a brain transplant as a
result of a fatal accident. In the accident, she loses her father and her body
becomes completely distorted with only her brain in working condition.
Fortunately for her, the parents of a sixteen-year-old girl who died when Alice
was in the hospital donated her body to Alice. Alice then gets a new body with
her brain transplanted in the new body. At first, the world seemed very strange
to Alice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Everything
around her seemed different. She found it difficult when she tried to speak as
her tongue seemed very large. Before they told her she had a new body, Alice
knew something was different about her – her hands, her breath, her tone. Alice
had to learn again like a small baby how to walk and talk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">She had to spend
about six months in the hospital before she was fit to go home. In order to
help her cope up with the situation, her mother removed all the mirrors from
the house that somehow when Alice chanced to see her reflection in the shop
windows she would fail to recognize herself and say “excuse me”. To remind to
herself that she did not have her old body she took to wearing sunglasses.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The question of
identity comes in here when Alice’s identical twin sister jenny had her
reservations about Alice. When Alice wanted to read Jenny’s diary, she refused
her. Before the accident, they used to share each and every feeling with each
other and one of the ways in which they shared was by reading each other’s
diaries. When Alice told that they had always read each other’s diaries. Jenny
said, “I have to get you to know you better”. This meant that Jenny still couldn’t
accept Alice as her sister. Alice is shocked to the point that she asked Jenny
whether fourteen years was not enough to know her. But how much ever Alice
tried to make Jenny see in her the Old Alice, Jenny still had her reservations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">But the new body
has its own advantages to it. Alice likes her new body much better than the old
one which had a lot of “cellulite”. She could now walk like a model which she
could never do with her old body. She started having new friends around her as
her confidence in her increased. Also, she decides to join the cheerleading
team because she is confident in her new body. All this is now more than one’s
self-image. Alice before the operation thought that she had a lot of
“cellulite” in her body and thought her old body was less athletic than the one
she has now. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Mental
attributes also play an important factor in one’s identity. Alice can now drive
a vehicle as she has a body of sixteen years old. Now she sees herself as being
beautiful and athletic. Ultimately this gives her confidence to do things she
really wanted to do but thought impossible because of her old physical status.
Because of this, she starts meeting new people and gaining new friends.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">With new body
many things change about her. She had a new athletic body and even her taste
buds change. That’s why when on their birthday, their mother prepared cake for
Alice and Jenny, Alice didn’t like the taste of the cake and she tried to hide
it but Jenny noticed it. Jenny felt frustrated about the whole affair and said,
“Sometimes I think my sister is dead” and left the dining room. Jenny still
could not understand that the person behind the new body was still her sister
with whom she used to share everything. Jenny found it difficult to adjust to
the new person although Alice tried to persuade her that was the old Alice.
Although her mother accepted her, still there were doubts in her mind and perhaps
whenever she looked at Alice she tried to see the face of Alice in her and
finding it to be someone else the mother might have felt guilty about it.
Therefore the mother was unable to meet Alice’s eyes directly.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Alice then
begins to question her identity. Who is she anyway and tries to find an answer
to it? She doubts whether she herself is herself anymore. In the end, we find
out that Alice was feeling unsure if she was really herself anymore. Once while
returning from school she finally gets the answer to the question about her identity
when she meets Mr. Jarred (who donated his daughter’s body) and talks to him.
Mr. Jarred showed this when he saw Alice downtown. Mr. Jarred told her that
she was not his daughter as his daughter was different in the way she stood and
talked from Alice. When Alice asked what he would tell his wife, he replied,
“I’ll tell her I looked into your eyes and that I didn’t see my daughter.” At
this Alice felt elated and very much excited that she finally found her
identity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">If a person
believes that he/she is attractive they will have more confidence and will
follow a different path in their life than a person who is overweight and has
less confidence to do things they really want to do. If you believe you are
beautiful then you are. Alice feels different, yet confident. She feels something
is missing like there is a hole inside her that she had to fill. Physical,
emotional, mental, and spiritual elements are all factors of one’s identity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The author uses
science fiction to alter readers about the future in “Mirror Image”. She uses
Alice’s brain transplant incident as an indicator to see how far would today’s
world stretch if science attempts to generate a sense of wonder. She explores
the life of a girl, who appears to be searching for more answers about her and
her life. Alice seems to be aware of the fact that the person to whom the
Mirror is reflecting is not the old Alice but a new Alice, with another body. Throughout
the story, the author talks about how important it is to understand the basic
characteristic that attributes to a person’s fact of being. The story exposes the idea that a person is not identified in a single attribute, but as a whole.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">We see ourselves
and others differently in their physicality, history, personality, psyche,
habits, dress, intellect, etc. It is not only pertaining to the physical
attributes that make up a person’s identity, but mental, emotional, and
spiritual factors are also important.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Character Sketch
</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">–
<b>Alice<o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The character of
Alice in Lena Coakley's "Mirror Image" is insecure and uncomfortable.
Alice is going through a change; a change brought on by a devastating car crash
that left her clinging to her life in an un-resurrectable body. Alice becomes
the first patient to ever receive a brain transplant, giving her a completely
new appearance. Although Alice is entirely aware of this, she is still
extremely confused about the new changes, which seem to surround her new life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Alice feels that
appearance and personality are two divided parts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">"Mirror
Image" does not reveal extensive information about Alice's appearance.
Alice's eyes, large and dark brown, are mentioned on several occasions during
the story. Besides her eyes, no direct information is revealed. Alice's body,
however, is often imagined by the reader to be lean and athletic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">This imagery is
the result of the following quotes. "Alice grabbed a chunk of her thigh,
‘no cellulite!'<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">“And "Now
you’re going out for cheerleading, for goodness sake.". Alice radiates
confidence regarding her new body. "Alice walked across the bedroom like a
fashion model, wearing nothing but black bikini underwear." She believes
that the change is a drastic improvement on her old body, "Actually, as bodies
go, this one is a lot better."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Alice is clearly
confused about her identity. Her confusion is best displayed in the following
quote: "The eyes are the mirror of the soul, he used to say. Whose soul is
that? Alice wondered. For a moment, she considered screaming, but it was too
much trouble. Besides, it wouldn't be her scream anyway." Alice exhibits
insecure behavior which is proven by her constant self-reassurance. <i>"</i>Just
you, Alice, she would say to herself, looking the way you've always looked.<i>”
</i>After Alice's encounter with Mr. Jarred, she reassured herself once more:
"In a small corner of the sidewalk she wrote her initials, ACS, with the
tip of the umbrella."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">CONFLICTS IN THE STORY<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">INTERNAL CONFLICTS</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Alice
vs Alice – after the operation Alice has to undergo lots of mental struggle in
order to adjust to her new appearance and in order to tune her mind with her
new body.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Alice
vs Gail – the brain of Alice has been transplanted into the body of Gail and
hence there is constant conflict between Alice and Gail as Alice the brain has
all the time to adjust to Gail the body.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">EXTERNAL CONFLICTS</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Alice
vs Mother – after the operation there is a lot of misunderstanding and confusion
between them.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Alice
vs sister – before the operation they were very close but after the operation, Jenny does not trust Alice completely and there is doubt and conflict between
them.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Alice
vs Mr. Jarred, and society – Alice is also in constant conflict with society
and Mr. Jarred who mistakes her to be Gail – his deceased daughter.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Why did the narrator wish
‘there were no mirrors’<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The narrator sincerely wished there
were no mirrors as mirrors were often confusing her and reminding her of her
changed appearance due to the brain-transplant operation. Often she felt there
was someone else standing in front of her as her new image was different from
her old one.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">What were some of the problems
faced by Alice after the operation?<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">After the operation, Alice had to
lots of adjustments as her mind and body were lacking proper coordination. She
had to reorient herself on how to speak and move in the hospital. At first, everything looked strange – the images, the colours, etc. Her skin responded
slowly to sensations. People’s voices appeared different. She often bit her
tongue while talking. Her tone has changed. She had to do a lot of adjustments
to cope with all these problems. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Describe Alice’s encounter with
Mr. Jarred on Bedford Avenue.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mr. Jarred, at the very first sight
of Alice, addressed her enthusiastically as Gail. But Alice’s response was very
cool and unfamiliar. Mr. Jarred slowly realized that everything in her was
different from Gail except that of her body. Moreover, there was nothing
familiar in her eyes. She did not recognize him as her father. Rather she told that her father had died in the accident. Finally Mr. Jarred understood the harsh
reality and sadly walked away saying that he would tell his wife that he did not see Gail in her eyes, but he did not tell Alice who he saw there. Alice too, confused, not knowing what to do, but somehow reassured that she belongs to the family where her brain belongs walked homeward.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="4" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Assess the psychological and
mental impact of the operation on Alice and other family members in your
own words.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Presenting the impact of modern
medical science on human life is the central theme of this story and hence it
deals with the psychological and mental impact on the protagonist and other
family members more vividly. In this story, a dead person has been brought into
life by a successful operation of brain transplantation. It’s certainly a
matter of great pride for the doctors but the protagonist (Alice) and all those
related to her appear to be confused and deeply affected psychologically. <o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Alice, herself is in a confused state of mind
and then begins to question her identity. Who is she anyway and tries to find
an answer to it? She doubts whether she herself is herself anymore.</span><br />
</span><div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p style="background-color: white;"></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<ol start="5" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Evaluate ‘Mirror Image’ as futuristic science fiction.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Science Fictions, in most cases, are
basically futuristic in nature and approach and this story is not any exception
to this basic rule. Science fiction usually looks forward and is much ahead of the
set and established scientific discoveries and developments. It uses established knowledge and facts as its basis and presents a picture of future
development based on logical imaginations. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">‘Mirror Image’ is a story that
talks about brain transplantation in a dead person and bringing back the dead
body in life once again through this path-breaking operation. This may appear
impossible at present but keeping the developments coming up regularly in the
field of medical science it does appear to be impossible in the future. Thus we can
comfortably say that ‘Mirror Image’ is futuristic science fiction. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><br />
</span><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com51tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-39194696275206877822013-08-21T19:03:00.001+06:002013-08-21T19:03:56.183+06:00Literary terms used in Literature.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Analogy<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">What is it?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Some people
live their lives like a sheet of scrapped paper blown along a windy street;
they are carried this way and that with no apparent effort or ability to
control their direction. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Answer <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A longer, more
detailed comparison of two ideas or situations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Allegory <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">What is it?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">John Bunyan's
"Pilgrim's Progress", a prose narrative, is an allegory of man's
spiritual salvation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Herbert
Spenser's poem "The Faerie Queene", besides being a chivalric
romance, is a commentary on morals and manners in 16th-century England as well
as a national epic. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Answer <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A story that
is told to explain or teach something, especially a long and complicated story
with an underlying meaning different from the surface meaning of the story
itself. The parables in the Bible are allegories.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Alliteration<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">What is it?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The cold,
clammy hands grasped my neck. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The bloody
watchman told a tale of trouble and torture. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Answer <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The same sound
starts a series of words or syllables.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Allusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">What is it?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Was the ticking package, gaily wrapped with ribbon and bright paper, a
Trojan gift? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Casual and confident, the West High team started the game that was to
prove their Waterloo. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Answer <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A reference to a famous person or event in life or literature.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Anaphora<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">What is it?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">This other Eden, demi-paradise, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">This fortress built by Nature for herself <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Against infection and the hand of war, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">This happy breed of men, this little world, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">This precious stone set in the silver sea, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Which serves it in the office of a wall, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Or as [a] moat defensive to a house, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Against the envy of less happier lands; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">- John of Gaunt in Shakespeare's Richard II (2.1.40-51; 57-60) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Answer <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of
successive clauses, sentences, or lines. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Anastrophe<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">What is it?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The verb before the subject-noun (normal syntax follows the order
subject-noun, verb): <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Glistens the dew upon the
morning grass. (Normally: The dew glistens upon the morning grass) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The object preceding its verb (normal syntax is verb followed by its
object): <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Troubles, everybody's got.
(Normally: Everybody's got troubles) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Adjective following the noun it modifies (normal syntax is adjective,
noun): <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> She looked at the sky dark and
menacing. (Normally: She looked at the dark and menacing sky) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Preposition following the object of the preposition (normal syntax is
preposition, object ["upon our lives"]): <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> It only stands / Our lives
upon, to use Our strongest hands <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> - Shakespeare, Antony and
Cleopatra 2.1.50-51 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Answer <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Departure from normal word order for the sake of emphasis. The
changing of the position of only a single word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Aposiopesis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">What is it?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">O judgment! thou art fled
to brutish beasts, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">And men have lost their
reason. Bear with me, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">My heart is in the coffin
there with Caesar, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">And I must pause till it
come back to me. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">- Shakespeare, Julius
Caesar 3.2.104-107 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">"Whom I... but I
cannot go on." <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Answer <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Breaking off suddenly in
the middle of speaking, usually to portray being overcome with emotion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Apostrophe<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">What is it?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">O maiores, quid diceretis
de hac re? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Oh ancestors, what would
you say about this matter? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Antony addresses Caesar's
corpse immediately following the assassination in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> That I am meek and gentle with these
butchers! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Thou art the ruins of the noblest man <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> That ever lived in the tide of times. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> - Shakespeare, Julius Caesar 3.1.254-257 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Answer <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Turning from one audience
to another. Most often, apostrophe occurs when addressing an abstraction, an
inanimate object, or to the absent.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Asyndeton<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">What is it?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">"Check this out. So
you meet this person. Boy, are they fine, kind, sensitive, loving, witty,
charming, intelligent...." -
Stevie Wonder <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Be one of the few, the
proud, the Marines. - Marine Corps
Advertisement <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">"When we listen to
the better angels of our nature, we find that they celebrate the simple things,
the basic things -- such as goodness, decency, love, kindness." - Richard Nixon, Inaugural Address <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Answer <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Figure of omission in
which normally occurring conjunctions (and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet) are
intentionally omitted in successive phrases, or clauses; a string of words not
separated by normally occurring conjunctions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Chiasmus<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">What is it?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">But O, what damned minutes
tells he o'er Who dotes, yet doubts; suspects, yet strong loves. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> - Shakespeare, Othello 3.3 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The idea of affection
occurs in "dotes" and "strongly loves"; the idea of
doubting in "doubts" and "suspects". These two ideas occur
in the quotation in an A B B A order, thus repeated and inverted. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">It is boring to eat; to
sleep is fulfilling. -The pattern is
present participle-infinitive; infinitive-present participle. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Answer <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Repetition of ideas in
inverted order. "A-B-B-A" arrangement of words.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Climax<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">What is it?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The soldiers, clutching
their weapons, raced across the beaches, then scaled the cliffs, and met the
enemy, face to face. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Answer <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A series of incidents of
increasing magnitude.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> </span><b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Accent:</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; text-align: justify;"> The emphasis, or stress, given a syllable in
pronunciation. We say "syllable" not "syllable,"
"emphasis" not "emphasis." Accents can also be used to
emphasize a particular word in a sentence: Is she content with the contents of
the yellow package? See also meter.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Act :</span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A major
division in the action of a play. The ends of acts are typically indicated by
lowering the curtain or turning up the houselights. Playwrights frequently
employ acts to accommodate changes in time, setting, characters onstage, or
mood. In many full-length plays, acts are further divided into scenes, which
often mark a point in the action when the location changes or when a new
character enters. See also scene.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Allegory : </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A narration or description usually restricted to a single meaning
because its events, actions, characters, settings, and objects represent
specific abstractions or ideas. Although the elements in an allegory may be
interesting in themselves, the emphasis tends to be on what they ultimately
mean. Characters may be given names such as Hope, Pride, Youth, and Charity;
they have few if any personal qualities beyond their abstract meanings. These
personifications are not symbols because, for instance, the meaning of a
character named Charity is precisely that virtue. See also symbol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Alliteration: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The repetition of the same consonant sounds in a sequence of words,
usually at the beginning of a word or stressed syllable: "descending dew
drops"; "luscious lemons." Alliteration is based on the sounds
of letters, rather than the spelling of words; for example, "keen"
and "car" alliterate, but "car" and "cite" do
not. Used sparingly, alliteration can intensify ideas by emphasizing key words,
but when used too self-consciously, it can be distracting, even ridiculous,
rather than effective. See also assonance, consonance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Allusion: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A brief reference to a person, place, thing, event, or idea in
history or literature. Allusions conjure up biblical authority, scenes from
Shakespeare’s plays, historic figures, wars, great love stories, and anything
else that might enrich an author’s work. Allusions imply reading and cultural
experiences shared by the writer and reader, functioning as a kind of shorthand
whereby the recalling of something outside the work supplies an emotional or
intellectual context, such as a poem about current racial struggles calling up
the memory of Abraham Lincoln.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Ambiguity : </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Allows for two or more simultaneous interpretations of a word, phrase,
action, or situation, all of which can be supported by the context of a work.
Deliberate ambiguity can contribute to the effectiveness and richness of a
work, for example, in the open-ended conclusion to Hawthorne’s "Young
Goodman Brown." However, unintentional ambiguity obscures meaning and can
confuse readers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Anagram: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A word or phrase made from the letters of another word or phrase, as
"heart" is an anagram of "earth." Anagrams have often been
considered merely an exercise of one’s ingenuity, but sometimes writers use
anagrams to conceal proper names or veiled messages, or to suggest important
connections between words, as in "hated" and "death."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Anapestic meter See foot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Antagonist: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The character, force, or collection of forces in fiction or drama
that opposes the protagonist and gives rise to the conflict of the story; an
opponent of the protagonist, such as Claudius in Shakespeare’s play Hamlet. See
also character, conflict.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Antihero: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A protagonist who has the opposite of most of the traditional
attributes of a hero. He or she may be bewildered, ineffectual, deluded, or
merely pathetic. Often what antiheroes learn, if they learn anything at all, is
that the world isolates them in an existence devoid of God and absolute values.
Yossarian from Joseph Heller’s Catch-22 is an example of an antihero. See also
character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Apostrophe: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An address, either to someone who is absent and therefore cannot hear
the speaker or to something nonhuman that cannot comprehend. Apostrophe often
provides a speaker the opportunity to think aloud.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Approximate rhyme See rhyme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Archetype: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A term used to describe universal symbols that evoke deep and
sometimes unconscious responses in a reader. In literature, characters, images,
and themes that symbolically embody universal meanings and basic human
experiences, regardless of when or where they live, are considered archetypes.
Common literary archetypes include stories of quests, initiations, scapegoats,
descents to the underworld, and ascents to heaven. See also mythological
criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Aside In drama, a speech directed to the audience that supposedly is
not audible to the other characters onstage at the time. When Hamlet first
appears onstage, for example, his aside "A little more than kin, and less
than kind!" gives the audience a strong sense of his alienation from King
Claudius. See also soliloquy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Assonance: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The repetition of internal vowel sounds in nearby words that do not
end the same, for example, "asleep under a tree," or "each
evening." Similar endings result in rhyme, as in "asleep in the
deep." Assonance is a strong means of emphasizing important words in a
line. See also alliteration, consonance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Ballad:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">
Traditionally, a ballad is a song, transmitted orally from generation to
generation, that tells a story and that eventually is written down. As such,
ballads usually cannot be traced to a particular author or group of authors.
Typically, ballads are dramatic, condensed, and impersonal narratives, such as
"Bonny Barbara Allan." A literary ballad is a narrative poem that is
written in deliberate imitation of the language, form, and spirit of the
traditional ballad, such as Keats’s "La Belle Dame sans Merci." See
also ballad stanza, quatrain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Ballad: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> stanza A four-line
stanza, known as a quatrain, consisting of alternating eight- and six-syllable
lines. Usually only the second and fourth lines rhyme (an abcb pattern).
Coleridge adopted the ballad stanza in "The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">All in a hot and copper sky<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The bloody Sun, at noon,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Right up above the mast did stand,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">No bigger than the Moon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Biographical criticism:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature which suggests
that knowledge of the author’s life experiences can aid in the understanding of
his or her work. While biographical information can sometimes complicate one’s
interpretation of a work, and some formalist critics (such as the New Critics)
disparage the use of the author’s biography as a tool for textual
interpretation, learning about the life of the author can often enrich a
reader’s appreciation for that author’s work. See also cultural criticism,
formalist criticism, new criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Blank verse:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Unrhymed
iambic pentameter. Blank verse is the English verse form closest to the natural
rhythms of English speech and therefore is the most common pattern found in
traditional English narrative and dramatic poetry from Shakespeare to the early
twentieth century. Shakespeare’s plays use blank verse extensively. See also
iambic pentameter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Cacophony: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Language that is discordant and difficult to pronounce, such as this
line from John Updike’s "Player Piano": "never my numb plunker
fumbles." Cacophony ("bad sound") may be unintentional in the
writer’s sense of music, or it may be used consciously for deliberate dramatic
effect. See also euphony.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Caesura:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A
pause within a line of poetry that contributes to the rhythm of the line. A
caesura can occur anywhere within a line and need not be indicated by
punctuation. In scanning a line, caesuras are indicated by a double vertical
line (||). See also meter, rhythm, scansion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Canon: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Those works generally considered by scholars, critics, and teachers
to be the most important to read and study, which collectively constitute the
"masterpieces" of literature. Since the 1960s, the traditional
English and American literary canon, consisting mostly of works by white male
writers, has been rapidly expanding to include many female writers and writers
of varying ethnic backgrounds.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Carpe diem: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The Latin phrase meaning "seize the day." This is a very
common literary theme, especially in lyric poetry, which emphasizes that life
is short, time is fleeting, and that one should make the most of present
pleasures. Robert Herrick’s poem "To the Virgins, to Make Much of
Time" employs the carpe diem theme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Catharsis: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Meaning "purgation," catharsis describes the release of the
emotions of pity and fear by the audience at the end of a tragedy. In his
Poetics, Aristotle discusses the importance of catharsis. The audience faces
the misfortunes of the protagonist, which elicit pity and compassion. Simultaneously,
the audience also confronts the failure of the protagonist, thus receiving a
frightening reminder of human limitations and frailties. Ultimately, however,
both these negative emotions are purged, because the tragic protagonist’s
suffering is an affirmation of human values rather than a despairing denial of
them. See also tragedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Character, characterization:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A character is a person presented in a
dramatic or narrative work, and characterization is the process by which a
writer makes that character seem real to the reader. A hero or heroine, often
called the protagonist, is the central character who engages the reader’s
interest and empathy. The antagonist is the character, force, or collection of
forces that stands directly opposed to the protagonist and gives rise to the
conflict of the story. A static character does not change throughout the work,
and the reader’s knowledge of that character does not grow, whereas a dynamic
character undergoes some kind of change because of the action in the plot. A flat
character embodies one or two qualities, ideas, or traits that can be readily
described in a brief summary. They are not psychologically complex characters
and therefore are readily accessible to readers. Some flat characters are
recognized as stock characters; they embody stereotypes such as the "dumb
blonde" or the "mean stepfather." They become types rather than
individuals. Round characters are more complex than flat or stock characters,
and often display the inconsistencies and internal conflicts found in most real
people. They are more fully developed, and therefore are harder to summarize.
Authors have two major methods of presenting characters: showing and telling.
Showing allows the author to present a character talking and acting, and lets the
reader infer what kind of person the character is. In telling, the author
intervenes to describe and sometimes evaluate the character for the reader.
Characters can be convincing whether they are presented by showing or by
telling, as long as their actions are motivated. Motivated action by the
characters occurs when the reader or audience is offered reasons for how the
characters behave, what they say, and the decisions they make. Plausible action
is action by a character in a story that seems reasonable, given the
motivations presented. See also plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Chorus:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">
In Greek tragedies (especially those of Aeschylus and Sophocles), a group of
people who serve mainly as commentators on the characters and events. They add
to the audience’s understanding of the play by expressing traditional moral,
religious, and social attitudes. The role of the chorus in dramatic works
evolved through the sixteenth century, and the chorus occasionally is still
used by modern playwrights such as T. S. Eliot in Murder in the Cathedral. See
also drama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Cliché:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">
An idea or expression that has become tired and trite from overuse, its
freshness and clarity having worn off. Clichés often anesthetize readers, and
are usually a sign of weak writing. See also sentimentality, stock responses.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Climax See plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Closet drama: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A play that is written to be read rather than performed onstage. In
this kind of drama, literary art outweighs all other considerations. See also
drama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Colloquial:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Refers
to a type of informal diction that reflects casual, conversational language and
often includes slang expressions. See also diction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Comedy: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A work intended to interest, involve, and amuse the reader or
audience, in which no terrible disaster occurs and that ends happily for the
main characters. High comedy refers to verbal wit, such as puns, whereas low
comedy is generally associated with physical action and is less intellectual.
Romantic comedy involves a love affair that meets with various obstacles (like
disapproving parents, mistaken identities, deceptions, or other sorts of
misunderstandings) but overcomes them to end in a blissful union. Shakespeare’s
comedies, such as A Midsummer Night’s Dream, are considered romantic comedies.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Comic relief: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A humorous scene or incident that alleviates tension in an otherwise
serious work. In many instances these moments enhance the thematic significance
of the story in addition to providing laughter. When Hamlet jokes with the
gravediggers we laugh, but something hauntingly serious about the humor also
intensifies our more serious emotions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Conflict: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The struggle within the plot between opposing forces. The protagonist
engages in the conflict with the antagonist, which may take the form of a
character, society, nature, or an aspect of the protagonist’s personality. See
also character, plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Connotation: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Associations and implications that go beyond the literal meaning of a
word, which derive from how the word has been commonly used and the
associations people make with it. For example, the word eagle connotes ideas of
liberty and freedom that have little to do with the word’s literal meaning. See
also denotation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Consonance: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A common type of near rhyme that consists of identical consonant
sounds preceded by different vowel sounds: home, same; worth, breath. See also
rhyme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Contextual symbol See symbol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Controlling metaphor See metaphor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Convention: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A characteristic of a literary genre (often unrealistic) that is
understood and accepted by audiences because it has come, through usage and
time, to be recognized as a familiar technique. For example, the division of a
play into acts and scenes is a dramatic convention, as are soliloquies and
asides. flashbacks and foreshadowing are examples of literary conventions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Conventional symbol See symbol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Cosmic irony See irony.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Couplet: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Two consecutive lines of poetry that usually rhyme and have the same
meter. A heroic couplet is a couplet written in rhymed iambic pentameter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Crisis: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A turning point in the action of a story that has a powerful effect
on the protagonist. Opposing forces come together decisively to lead to the
climax of the plot. See also plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Cultural criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature that focuses on the historical as well as
social, political, and economic contexts of a work. Popular culture—mass
produced and consumed cultural artifacts ranging from advertising to popular
fiction to television to rock music—is given equal emphasis as "high
culture." Cultural critics use widely eclectic strategies such as new
historicism, psychology, gender studies, and deconstructionism to analyze not
only literary texts but everything from radio talk shows, comic strips,
calendar art, commercials, to travel guides and baseball cards. See also
historical criticism, marxist criticism, postcolonial criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Dactylic meter See foot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Deconstructionism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature which suggests that literary works do not
yield fixed, single meanings, because language can never say exactly what we
intend it to mean. Deconstructionism seeks to destabilize meaning by examining
the gaps and ambiguities of the language of a text. Deconstructionists pay
close attention to language in order to discover and describe how a variety of
possible readings are generated by the elements of a text. See also new
criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Denotation: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The dictionary meaning of a word. See also connotation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Dénouement: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A French term meaning "unraveling" or
"unknotting," used to describe the resolution of the plot following
the climax. See also plot, resolution.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Dialect: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A type of informational diction. Dialects are spoken by definable
groups of people from a particular geographic region, economic group, or social
class. Writers use dialect to contrast and express differences in educational,
class, social, and regional backgrounds of their characters. See also diction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Dialogue: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The verbal exchanges between characters. Dialogue makes the
characters seem real to the reader or audience by revealing firsthand their
thoughts, responses, and emotional states. See also diction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Diction: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A writer’s choice of words, phrases, sentence structures, and
figurative language, which combine to help create meaning. Formal diction
consists of a dignified, impersonal, and elevated use of language; it follows
the rules of syntax exactly and is often characterized by complex words and
lofty tone. Middle diction maintains correct language usage, but is less
elevated than formal diction; it reflects the way most educated people speak.
Informal diction represents the plain language of everyday use, and often includes
idiomatic expressions, slang, contractions, and many simple, common words.
Poetic diction refers to the way poets sometimes employ an elevated diction
that deviates significantly from the common speech and writing of their time,
choosing words for their supposedly inherent poetic qualities. Since the
eighteenth century, however, poets have been incorporating all kinds of diction
in their work and so there is no longer an automatic distinction between the
language of a poet and the language of everyday speech. See also dialect.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Didactic poetry : </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Poetry designed to teach an ethical, moral, or religious lesson.
Michael Wigglesworth’s Puritan poem Day of Doom is an example of didactic
poetry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Doggerel: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A derogatory term used to describe poetry whose subject is trite and
whose rhythm and sounds are monotonously heavy-handed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Drama: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Derived from the Greek word dram, meaning "to do" or
"to perform," the term drama may refer to a single play, a group of
plays ("Jacobean drama"), or to all plays ("world drama"). Drama
is designed for performance in a theater; actors take on the roles of
characters, perform indicated actions, and speak the dialogue written in the
script. Play is a general term for a work of dramatic literature, and a
playwright is a writer who makes plays.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Dramatic monologue: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A type of lyric poem in which a character (the speaker) addresses a
distinct but silent audience imagined to be present in the poem in such a way
as to reveal a dramatic situation and, often unintentionally, some aspect of
his or her temperament or personality. See also lyric.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Dynamic character See character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Editorial omniscience See narrator.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Electra complex: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The female version of the Oedipus complex. Electra complex is a term
used to describe the psychological conflict of a daughter’s unconscious rivalry
with her mother for her father’s attention. The name comes from the Greek
legend of Electra, who avenged the death of her father, Agamemnon, by plotting
the death of her mother. See also oedipus complex, psychological criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Elegy: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A mournful, contemplative lyric poem written to commemorate someone
who is dead, often ending in a consolation. Tennyson’s In Memoriam, written on
the death of Arthur Hallam, is an elegy. Elegy may also refer to a serious
meditative poem produced to express the speaker’s melancholy thoughts. See also
lyric.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">End rhyme See rhyme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">End-stopped line: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A poetic line that has a pause at the end. End-stopped lines reflect
normal speech patterns and are often marked by punctuation. The first line of
Keats’s "Endymion" is an example of an end-stopped line; the natural
pause coincides with the end of the line, and is marked by a period:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A thing of beauty is a joy forever.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">English sonnet See sonnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Enjambment: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> In poetry, when one line ends without a pause and continues into the
next line for its meaning. This is also called a run-on line. The transition
between the first two lines of Wordsworth’s poem "My Heart Leaps Up"
demonstrates enjambment:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">My heart leaps up when I behold<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A rainbow in the sky:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Envoy See sestina.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Epic: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A long narrative poem, told in a formal, elevated style, that focuses
on a serious subject and chronicles heroic deeds and events important to a
culture or nation. Milton’s Paradise Lost, which attempts to "justify the
ways of God to man," is an epic. See also narrative poem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Epigram: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A brief, pointed, and witty poem that usually makes a satiric or
humorous point. Epigrams are most often written in couplets, but take no
prescribed form.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Epiphany: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> In fiction, when a character suddenly experiences a deep realization
about himself or herself; a truth which is grasped in an ordinary rather than a
melodramatic moment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Escape literature See formula literature.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Euphony Euphony ("good sound"): </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> refers to language that is smooth and musically
pleasant to the ear. See also cacophony.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Exact rhyme See rhyme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Exposition: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A narrative device, often used at the beginning of a work, that
provides necessary background information about the characters and their
circumstances. Exposition explains what has gone on before, the relationships
between characters, the development of a theme, and the introduction of a
conflict. See also flashback.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Extended metaphor See metaphor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Eye rhyme See rhyme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Falling action See plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Farce: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A form of humor based on exaggerated, improbable incongruities. Farce
involves rapid shifts in action and emotion, as well as slapstick comedy and
extravagant dialogue. Malvolio, in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night, is a farcical
character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Feminist criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature that seeks to correct or supplement what
may be regarded as a predominantly male-dominated critical perspective with a
feminist consciousness. Feminist criticism places literature in a social
context and uses a broad range of disciplines, including history, sociology,
psychology, and linguistics, to provide a perspective sensitive to feminist
issues. Feminist theories also attempt to understand representation from a
woman’s point of view and to explain women’s writing strategies as specific to
their social conditions. See also gay and lesbian criticism, gender criticism,
sociological criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Figures of speech: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Ways of using language that deviate from the literal, denotative
meanings of words in order to suggest additional meanings or effects. Figures
of speech say one thing in terms of something else, such as when an eager
funeral director is described as a vulture. See also metaphor, simile.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">First-person narrator See narrator.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Fixed form: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A poem that may be categorized by the pattern of its lines, meter,
rhythm, or stanzas. A sonnet is a fixed form of poetry because by definition it
must have fourteen lines. Other fixed forms include limerick, sestina, and
villanelle. However, poems written in a fixed form may not always fit into
categories precisely, because writers sometimes vary traditional forms to
create innovative effects. See also open form.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Flashback : </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A narrated scene that marks a break in the narrative in order to
inform the reader or audience member about events that took place before the
opening scene of a work. See also exposition.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Flat character See character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Foil: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A character in a work whose behavior and values contrast with those
of another character in order to highlight the distinctive temperament of that
character (usually the protagonist). In Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Laertes acts as a
foil to Hamlet, because his willingness to act underscores Hamlet’s inability
to do so.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Foot: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The metrical unit by which a line of poetry is measured. A foot
usually consists of one stressed and one or two unstressed syllables. An iambic
foot, which consists of one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed
syllable ("away"), is the most common metrical foot in English
poetry. A trochaic foot consists of one stressed syllable followed by an
unstressed syllable ("lovely"). An anapestic foot is two unstressed
syllables followed by one stressed one ("understand"). A dactylic
foot is one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones
("desperate"). A spondee is a foot consisting of two stressed
syllables ("dead set"), but is not a sustained metrical foot and is
used mainly for variety or emphasis. See also iambic pentameter, line, meter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Foreshadowing: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The introduction early in a story of verbal and dramatic hints that
suggest what is to come later.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Form: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The overall structure or shape of a work, which frequently follows an
established design. Forms may refer to a literary type (narrative form, short
story form) or to patterns of meter, lines, and rhymes (stanza form, verse
form). See also fixed form, open form.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Formal diction See diction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Formalist criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature that focuses on the formal elements of a
work, such as its language, structure, and tone. Formalist critics offer
intense examinations of the relationship between form and meaning in a work,
emphasizing the subtle complexity in how a work is arranged. Formalists pay
special attention to diction, irony, paradox, metaphor, and symbol, as well as
larger elements such as plot, characterization, and narrative technique.
Formalist critics read literature as an independent work of art rather than as
a reflection of the author’s state of mind or as a representation of a moment
in history. Therefore, anything outside of the work, including historical
influences and authorial intent, is generally not examined by formalist
critics. See also new criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Formula literature: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Often characterized as "escape literature," formula
literature follows a pattern of conventional reader expectations. Romance
novels, westerns, science fiction, and detective stories are all examples of
formula literature; while the details of individual stories vary, the basic
ingredients of each kind of story are the same. Formula literature offers happy
endings (the hero "gets the girl," the detective cracks the case),
entertains wide audiences, and sells tremendously well.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Found poem: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An unintentional poem discovered in a nonpoetic context, such as a
conversation, news story, or advertisement. Found poems serve as reminders that
everyday language often contains what can be considered poetry, or that poetry
is definable as any text read as a poem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Free verse: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Also called open form poetry, free verse refers to poems
characterized by their nonconformity to established patterns of meter, rhyme,
and stanza. Free verse uses elements such as speech patterns, grammar,
emphasis, and breath pauses to decide line breaks, and usually does not rhyme.
See open form.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Gay and lesbian criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature that focuses on how homosexuals are
represented in literature, how they read literature, and whether sexuality, as
well as gender, is culturally constructed or innate. See also feminist
criticism, gender criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Gender criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature that explores how ideas about men and
women—what is masculine and feminine—can be regarded as socially constructed by
particular cultures. Gender criticism expands categories and definitions of
what is masculine or feminine and tends to regard sexuality as more complex
than merely masculine or feminine, heterosexual or homosexual. See also
feminist criticism, gay and lesbian criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Genre: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A French word meaning kind or type. The major genres in literature
are poetry, fiction, drama, and essays. Genre can also refer to more specific types
of literature such as comedy, tragedy, epic poetry, or science fiction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Haiku: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A style of lyric poetry borrowed from the Japanese that typically
presents an intense emotion or vivid image of nature, which, traditionally, is
designed to lead to a spiritual insight. Haiku is a fixed poetic form,
consisting of seventeen syllables organized into three unrhymed lines of five,
seven, and five syllables. Today, however, many poets vary the syllabic count
in their haiku. See also fixed form.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Hamartia: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A term coined by Aristotle to describe "some error or
frailty" that brings about misfortune for a tragic hero. The concept of
hamartia is closely related to that of the tragic flaw: both lead to the
downfall of the protagonist in a tragedy. Hamartia may be interpreted as an
internal weakness in a character (like greed or passion or hubris); however, it
may also refer to a mistake that a character makes that is based not on a
personal failure, but on circumstances outside the protagonist’s personality
and control. See also tragedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Hero, heroine See character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Heroic couplet See couplet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">High comedy See comedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Historical criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature that uses history as a means of
understanding a literary work more clearly. Such criticism moves beyond both
the facts of an author’s personal life and the text itself in order to examine
the social and intellectual currents in which the author composed the work. See
also cultural criticism, marxist criticism, new historicism, postcolonial
criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Hubris or Hybris: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Excessive pride or self-confidence that leads a protagonist to
disregard a divine warning or to violate an important moral law. In tragedies,
hubris is a very common form of hamartia. See also hamartia, tragedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Hyperbole: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A boldly exaggerated statement that adds emphasis without in-tending
to be literally true, as in the statement "He ate everything in the
house." Hyperbole (also called overstatement) may be used for serious,
comic, or ironic effect. See also figures of speech.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Iambic meter See foot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Iambic pentameter: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A metrical pattern in poetry which consists of five iambic feet per
line. (An iamb, or iambic foot, consists of one unstressed syllable followed by
a stressed syllable.) See also foot, meter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Image: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A word, phrase, or figure of speech (especially a simile or a
metaphor) that addresses the senses, suggesting mental pictures of sights,
sounds, smells, tastes, feelings, or actions. Images offer sensory impressions
to the reader and also convey emotions and moods through their verbal pictures.
See also figures of speech.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Implied metaphor See metaphor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">In medias res See plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Informal diction See diction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Internal rhyme See rhyme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Irony: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A literary device that uses contradictory statements or situations to
reveal a reality different from what appears to be true. It is ironic for a
firehouse to burn down, or for a police station to be burglarized. Verbal irony
is a figure of speech that occurs when a person says one thing but means the
opposite. Sarcasm is a strong form of verbal irony that is calculated to hurt
someone through, for example, false praise. Dramatic irony creates a
discrepancy between what a character believes or says and what the reader or
audience member knows to be true. Tragic irony is a form of dramatic irony
found in tragedies such as Oedipus the King, in which Oedipus searches for the
person responsible for the plague that ravishes his city and ironically ends up
hunting himself. Situational irony exists when there is an incongruity between
what is expected to happen and what actually happens due to forces beyond human
comprehension or control. The suicide of the seemingly successful main
character in Edwin Arlington Robinson’s poem "Richard Cory" is an
example of situational irony. Cosmic irony occurs when a writer uses God,
destiny, or fate to dash the hopes and expectations of a character or of
humankind in general. In cosmic irony, a discrepancy exists between what a
character aspires to and what universal forces provide. Stephen Crane’s poem
"A Man Said to the Universe" is a good example of cosmic irony,
because the universe acknowledges no obligation to the man’s assertion of his
own existence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Italian sonnet See sonnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Limerick : </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A light, humorous style of fixed form poetry. Its usual form consists
of five lines with the rhyme scheme aabba; lines 1, 2, and 5 contain three
feet, while lines 3 and 4 usually contain two feet. Limericks range in subject
matter from the silly to the obscene, and since Edward Lear popularized them in
the nineteenth century, children and adults have enjoyed these comic poems. See
also fixed form.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Limited omniscience See point of view.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Line: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A sequence of words printed as a separate entity on the page. In
poetry, lines are usually measured by the number of feet they contain. The
names for various line lengths are as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">monometer: one foot<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">dimeter: two feet <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">trimeter: three feet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">tetrameter: four feet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> pentameter: five feet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">hexameter: six feet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">et<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">octameter: eight feet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The number of feet in a line,
coupled with the name of the foot, describes the metrical qualities of that
line. See also end-stopped line, enjambment, foot, meter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Literary ballad See ballad.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Literary symbol See symbol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Lyric: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A type of brief poem that expresses the personal emotions and
thoughts of a single speaker. It is important to realize, however, that
although the lyric is uttered in the first person, the speaker is not
necessarily the poet. There are many varieties of lyric poetry, including the
dramatic monologue, elegy, haiku, ode, and sonnet forms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Marxist criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature that focuses on the ideological content of
a work—its explicit and implicit assumptions and values about matters such as
culture, race, class, and power. Marxist criticism, based largely on the
writings of Karl Marx, typically aims at not only revealing and clarifying
ideological issues but also correcting social injustices. Some Marxist critics
use literature to describe the competing socioeconomic interests that too often
advance capitalist interests such as money and power rather than socialist
interests such as morality and justice. They argue that literature and literary
criticism are essentially political because they either challenge or support
economic oppression. Because of this strong emphasis on the political aspects
of texts, Marxist criticism focuses more on the content and themes of
literature than on its form. See also cultural criticism, historical criticism,
sociological criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Masculine rhyme See rhyme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Melodrama: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A term applied to any literary work that relies on implausible events
and sensational action for its effect. The conflicts in melodramas typically
arise out of plot rather than characterization; often a virtuous individual
must somehow confront and overcome a wicked oppressor. Usually, a melodramatic
story ends happily, with the protagonist defeating the antagonist at the last
possible moment. Thus, melodramas entertain the reader or audience with
exciting action while still conforming to a traditional sense of justice. See
sentimentality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Metaphor: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two
unlike things, without using the word like or as. Metaphors assert the identity
of dissimilar things, as when Macbeth asserts that life is a "brief
candle." Metaphors can be subtle and powerful, and can transform people,
places, objects, and ideas into whatever the writer imagines them to be. An
implied metaphor is a more subtle comparison; the terms being compared are not
so specifically explained. For example, to describe a stubborn man unwilling to
leave, one could say that he was "a mule standing his ground." This
is a fairly explicit metaphor; the man is being compared to a mule. But to say
that the man "brayed his refusal to leave" is to create an implied metaphor,
because the subject (the man) is never overtly identified as a mule. Braying is
associated with the mule, a notoriously stubborn creature, and so the
comparison between the stubborn man and the mule is sustained. Implied
metaphors can slip by inattentive readers who are not sensitive to such
carefully chosen, highly concentrated language. An extended metaphor is a
sustained comparison in which part or all of a poem consists of a series of
related metaphors. Robert Francis’s poem "Catch" relies on an extended
metaphor that compares poetry to playing catch. A controlling metaphor runs
through an entire work and determines the form or nature of that work. The
controlling metaphor in Anne Bradstreet’s poem "The Author to Her
Book" likens her book to a child. Synecdoche is a kind of metaphor in
which a part of something is used to signify the whole, as when a gossip is
called a "wagging tongue," or when ten ships are called "ten
sails." Sometimes, synecdoche refers to the whole being used to signify
the part, as in the phrase "Boston won the baseball game." Clearly,
the entire city of Boston did not participate in the game; the whole of Boston
is being used to signify the individuals who played and won the game. Metonymy
is a type of metaphor in which something closely associated with a subject is
substituted for it. In this way, we speak of the "silver screen" to
mean motion pictures, "the crown" to stand for the king, "the
White House" to stand for the activities of the president. See also figures
of speech, personification, simile.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Meter: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> When a rhythmic pattern of stresses recurs in a poem, it is called
meter. Metrical patterns are determined by the type and number of feet in a
line of verse; combining the name of a line length with the name of a foot
concisely describes the meter of the line. Rising meter refers to metrical feet
which move from unstressed to stressed sounds, such as the iambic foot and the
anapestic foot. Falling meter refers to metrical feet which move from stressed
to unstressed sounds, such as the trochaic foot and the dactylic foot. See also
accent, foot, iambic pentameter, line.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Metonymy See metaphor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Middle diction See diction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Motivated action See character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Mythological criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature that seeks to identify what in a work
creates deep universal responses in readers, by paying close attention to the
hopes, fears, and expectations of entire cultures. Mythological critics
(sometimes called archetypal critics) look for underlying, recurrent patterns
in literature that reveal universal meanings and basic human experiences for
readers regardless of when and where they live. These critics attempt to
explain how archetypes (the characters, images, and themes that symbolically
embody universal meanings and experiences) are embodied in literary works in
order to make larger connections that explain a particular work’s lasting
appeal. Mythological critics may specialize in areas such as classical
literature, philology, anthropology, psychology, and cultural history, but they
all emphasize the assumptions and values of various cultures. See also
archetype.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Narrative poem: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A poem that tells a story. A narrative poem may be short or long, and
the story it relates may be simple or complex. See also ballad, epic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Narrator: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The voice of the person telling the story, not to be confused with
the author’s voice. With a first-person narrator, the I in the story presents
the point of view of only one character. The reader is restricted to the
perceptions, thoughts, and feelings of that single character. For example, in
Melville’s "Bartleby, the Scrivener," the lawyer is the first-person
narrator of the story. First-person narrators can play either a major or a
minor role in the story they are telling. An unreliable narrator reveals an
interpretation of events that is somehow different from the author’s own
interpretation of those events. Often, the unreliable narrator’s perception of
plot, characters, and setting becomes the actual subject of the story, as in
Melville’s "Bartleby, the Scrivener." Narrators can be unreliable for
a number of reasons: they might lack self-knowledge (like Melville’s lawyer),
they might be inexperienced, they might even be insane. Naive narrators are
usually characterized by youthful innocence, such as Mark Twain’s Huck Finn or
J. D. Salinger’s Holden Caulfield. An omniscient narrator is an all-knowing
narrator who is not a character in the story and who can move from place to
place and pass back and forth through time, slipping into and out of characters
as no human being possibly could in real life. Omniscient narrators can report
the thoughts and feelings of the characters, as well as their words and
actions. The narrator of The Scarlet Letter is an omniscient narrator.
Editorial omniscience refers to an intrusion by the narrator in order to
evaluate a character for a reader, as when the narrator of The Scarlet Letter
describes Hester’s relationship to the Puritan community. Narration that allows
the characters’ actions and thoughts to speak for themselves is called neutral
omniscience. Most modern writers use neutral omniscience so that readers can
reach their own conclusions. Limited omniscience occurs when an author
restricts a narrator to the single perspective of either a major or minor
character. The way people, places, and events appear to that character is the
way they appear to the reader. Sometimes a limited omniscient narrator can see
into more than one character, particularly in a work that focuses on two
characters alternately from one chapter to the next. Short stories, however,
are frequently limited to a single character’s point of view. See also persona,
point of view, stream-of-consciousness technique.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Neutral omniscience See narrator.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">New Criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature made popular between the 1940s and the
1960s that evolved out of formalist criticism. New Critics suggest that
detailed analysis of the language of a literary text can uncover important
layers of meaning in that work. New Criticism consciously downplays the
historical influences, authorial intentions, and social contexts that surround
texts in order to focus on explication—extremely close textual analysis.
Critics such as John Crowe Ransom, I. A. Richards, and Robert Penn Warren are
commonly associated with New Criticism. See also formalist criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">New historicism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature that emphasizes the interaction between the
historic context of the work and a modern reader’s understanding and
interpretation of the work. New historicists attempt to describe the culture of
a period by reading many different kinds of texts and paying close attention to
many different dimensions of a culture, including political, economic, social,
and aesthetic concerns. They regard texts not simply as a reflection of the
culture that produced them but also as productive of that culture playing an
active role in the social and political conflicts of an age. New historicism
acknowledges and then explores various versions of "history,"
sensitizing us to the fact that the history on which we choose to focus is
colored by being reconstructed from our present circumstances. See also
historical criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Objective point of view See point of view.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Octave: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A poetic stanza of eight lines, usually forming one part of a sonnet.
See also sonnet, stanza.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Ode: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A relatively lengthy lyric poem that often expresses lofty emotions
in a dignified style. Odes are characterized by a serious topic, such as truth,
art, freedom, justice, or the meaning of life; their tone tends to be formal.
There is no prescribed pattern that defines an ode; some odes repeat the same
pattern in each stanza, while others introduce a new pattern in each stanza.
See also lyric.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Oedipus complex: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A Freudian term derived from Sophocles’ tragedy Oedipus the King. It
describes a psychological complex that is predicated on a boy’s unconscious
rivalry with his father for his mother’s love and his desire to eliminate his
father in order to take his father’s place with his mother. The female
equivalent of this complex is called the Electra complex. See also electra
complex, psychological criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Omniscient narrator See narrator.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">One-act play: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A play that takes place in a single location and unfolds as one
continuous action. The characters in a one-act play are presented economically
and the action is sharply focused. See also drama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Onomatopoeia: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A term referring to the use of a word that resembles the sound it
denotes. Buzz, rattle, bang, and sizzle all reflect onomatopoeia. Onomatopoeia
can also consist of more than one word; writers sometimes create lines or whole
passages in which the sound of the words helps to convey their meanings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Open form Sometimes called "free verse,": </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> open form
poetry does not conform to established patterns of meter, rhyme, and stanza.
Such poetry derives its rhythmic qualities from the repetition of words,
phrases, or grammatical structures, the arrangement of words on the printed
page, or by some other means. The poet E. E. Cummings wrote open form poetry;
his poems do not have measurable meters, but they do have rhythm. See also
fixed form.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Organic form: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Refers to works whose formal characteristics are not rigidly
predetermined but follow the movement of thought or emotion being expressed.
Such works are said to grow like living organisms, following their own
individual patterns rather than external fixed rules that govern, for example,
the form of a sonnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Overstatement See hyperbole.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Oxymoron: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A condensed form of paradox in which two contradictory words are used
together, as in "sweet sorrow" or "original copy." See also
paradox.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Paradox: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A statement that initially appears to be contradictory but then, on
closer inspection, turns out to make sense. For example, John Donne ends his
sonnet "Death, Be Not Proud" with the paradoxical statement
"Death, thou shalt die." To solve the paradox, it is necessary to
discover the sense that underlies the statement. Paradox is useful in poetry
because it arrests a reader’s attention by its seemingly stubborn refusal to
make sense.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Paraphrase: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A prose restatement of the central ideas of a poem, in your own
language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Parody: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A humorous imitation of another, usually serious, work. It can take
any fixed or open form, because parodists imitate the tone, language, and shape
of the original in order to deflate the subject matter, making the original
work seem absurd. Anthony Hecht’s poem "Dover Bitch" is a famous
parody of Matthew Arnold’s well-known "Dover Beach." Parody may also
be used as a form of literary criticism to expose the defects in a work. But
sometimes parody becomes an affectionate acknowledgment that a well-known work
has become both institutionalized in our culture and fair game for some fun.
For example, Peter De Vries’s "To His Importunate Mistress" gently
mocks Andrew Marvell’s "To His Coy Mistress."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Persona: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Literally, a persona is a mask. In literature, a persona is a speaker
created by a writer to tell a story or to speak in a poem. A persona is not a
character in a story or narrative, nor does a persona necessarily directly reflect
the author’s personal voice. A persona is a separate self, created by and
distinct from the author, through which he or she speaks. See also narrator.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Personification: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A form of metaphor in which human characteristics are attributed to
nonhuman things. Personification offers the writer a way to give the world life
and motion by assigning familiar human behaviors and emotions to animals,
inanimate objects, and abstract ideas. For example, in Keats’s "Ode on a
Grecian Urn," the speaker refers to the urn as an "unravished bride
of quietness." See also metaphor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Petrarchan sonnet See also sonnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Picture poem: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A type of open form poetry in which the poet arranges the lines of
the poem so as to create a particular shape on the page. The shape of the poem embodies
its subject; the poem becomes a picture of what the poem is describing. Michael
McFee’s "In Medias Res" is an example of a picture poem. See also
open form.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Plausible action See character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Plot: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An author’s selection and arrangement of incidents in a story to
shape the action and give the story a particular focus. Discussions of plot
include not just what happens, but also how and why things happen the way they
do. Stories that are written in a pyramidal pattern divide the plot into three
essential parts. The first part is the rising action, in which complication
creates some sort of conflict for the protagonist. The second part is the
climax, the moment of greatest emotional tension in a narrative, usually
marking a turning point in the plot at which the rising action reverses to
become the falling action. The third part, the falling action (or resolution)
is characterized by diminishing tensions and the resolution of the plot’s
conflicts and complications. In medias res is a term used to describe the
common strategy of beginning a story in the middle of the action. In this type
of plot, we enter the story on the verge of some important moment. See also
character, crisis, resolution, subplot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Point of view: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Refers to who tells us a story and how it is told. What we know and
how we feel about the events in a work are shaped by the author’s choice of
point of view. The teller of the story, the narrator, inevitably affects our
understanding of the characters’ actions by filtering what is told through his
or her own perspective. The various points of view that writers draw upon can
be grouped into two broad categories: (1) the third-person narrator uses he,
she, or they to tell the story and does not participate in the action; and (2)
the first-person narrator uses I and is a major or minor participant in the
action. In addition, a second-person narrator, you, is also possible, but is
rarely used because of the awkwardness of thrusting the reader into the story, as
in "You are minding your own business on a park bench when a drunk steps
out and demands your lunch bag." An objective point of view employs a
third-person narrator who does not see into the mind of any character. From
this detached and impersonal perspective, the narrator reports action and
dialogue without telling us directly what the characters think and feel. Since
no analysis or interpretation is provided by the narrator, this point of view
places a premium on dialogue, actions, and details to reveal character to the
reader. See also narrator, stream-of-consciousness technique.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Postcolonial criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature that focuses on the study of cultural
behavior and expression in relationship to the colonized world. Postcolonial
criticism refers to the analysis of literary works written by writers from
countries and cultures that at one time have been controlled by colonizing
powers—such as Indian writers during or after British colonial rule.
Postcolonial criticism also refers to the analysis of literary works written
about colonial cultures by writers from the colonizing country. Many of these
kinds of analyses point out how writers from colonial powers sometimes
misrepresent colonized cultures by reflecting more their own values. See also cultural
criticism, historical criticism, marxist criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Problem play: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> Popularized by Henrik Ibsen, a problem play is a type of drama that
presents a social issue in order to awaken the audience to it. These plays
usually reject romantic plots in favor of holding up a mirror that reflects not
simply what the audience wants to see but what the playwright sees in them.
Often, a problem play will propose a solution to the problem that does not
coincide with prevailing opinion. The term is also used to refer to certain
Shakespeare plays that do not fit the categories of tragedy, comedy, or
romance. See also drama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Prologue: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The opening speech or dialogue of a play, especially a classic Greek
play, that usually gives the exposition necessary to follow the subsequent
action. Today the term also refers to the introduction to any literary work.
See also drama, exposition.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Prose poem: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A kind of open form poetry that is printed as prose and represents
the most clear opposite of fixed form poetry. Prose poems are densely compact
and often make use of striking imagery and figures of speech. See also fixed
form, open form.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Prosody The overall metrical structure of a poem. See also meter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Protagonist: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The main character of a narrative; its central character who engages
the reader’s interest and empathy. See also character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Psychological criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature that draws upon psychoanalytic theories,
especially those of Sigmund Freud or Jacques Lacan to understand more fully the
text, the writer, and the reader. The basis of this approach is the idea of the
existence of a human unconscious—those impulses, desires, and feelings about
which a person is unaware but which influence emotions and behavior. Critics
use psychological approaches to explore the motivations of characters and the
symbolic meanings of events, while biographers speculate about a writer’s own
motivations—conscious or unconscious—in a literary work. Psychological
approaches are also used to describe and analyze the reader’s personal responses
to a text.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Pun: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A play on words that relies on a word’s having more than one meaning
or sounding like another word. Shakespeare and other writers use puns
extensively, for serious and comic purposes; in Romeo and Juliet (III.i.101),
the dying Mercutio puns, "Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a
grave man." Puns have serious literary uses, but since the eighteenth
century, puns have been used almost purely for humorous effect. See also
comedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Pyramidal pattern See plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Quatrain: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A four-line stanza. Quatrains are the most common stanzaic form in
the English language; they can have various meters and rhyme schemes. See also
meter, rhyme, stanza.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Reader-response criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature that focuses on the reader rather than the
work itself, by attempting to describe what goes on in the reader’s mind during
the reading of a text. Hence, the consciousness of the reader—produced by
reading the work—is the actual subject of reader-response criticism. These
critics are not after a "correct" reading of the text or what the
author presumably intended; instead, they are interested in the reader’s
individual experience with the text. Thus, there is no single definitive
reading of a work, because readers create rather than discover absolute meanings
in texts. However, this approach is not a rationale for mistaken or bizarre
readings, but an exploration of the possibilities for a plurality of readings.
This kind of strategy calls attention to how we read and what influences our
readings, and what that reveals about ourselves.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Recognition: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The moment in a story when previously unknown or withheld information
is revealed to the protagonist, resulting in the discovery of the truth of his
or her situation and, usually, a decisive change in course for that character.
In Oedipus the King, the moment of recognition comes when Oedipus finally
realizes that he has killed his father and married his mother.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Resolution: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The conclusion of a plot’s conflicts and complications. The
resolution, also known as the falling action, follows the climax in the plot.
See also dénouement, plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Revenge tragedy See tragedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Reversal: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The point in a story when the protagonist’s fortunes turn in an
unexpected direction. See also plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Rhyme: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The repetition of identical or similar concluding syllables in
different words, most often at the ends of lines. Rhyme is predominantly a
function of sound rather than spelling; thus, words that end with the same
vowel sounds rhyme, for instance, day, prey, bouquet, weigh, and words with the
same consonant ending rhyme, for instance vain, feign, rein, lane. Words do not
have to be spelled the same way or look alike to rhyme. In fact, words may look
alike but not rhyme at all. This is called eye rhyme, as with bough and cough,
or brow and blow.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">End rhyme: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> is the most common form of rhyme in poetry; the rhyme comes at the
end of the lines.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">It runs through the reeds, And
away it proceeds,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Through meadow and glade, In sun
and in shade.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The rhyme scheme: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> of a poem describes the pattern of end rhymes. Rhyme schemes are
mapped out by noting patterns of rhyme with small letters: the first rhyme
sound is designated a, the second becomes b, the third c, and so on. Thus, the
rhyme scheme of the stanza above is aabb. Internal rhyme places at least one of
the rhymed words within the line, as in "Dividing and gliding and
sliding" or "In mist or cloud, on mast or shroud." Masculine
rhyme describes the rhyming of single-syllable words, such as grade or shade.
Masculine rhyme also occurs where rhyming words of more than one syllable, when
the same sound occurs in a final stressed syllable, as in defend and contend,
betray and away. Feminine rhyme consists of a rhymed stressed syllable followed
by one or more identical unstressed syllables, as in butter, clutter;
gratitude, attitude; quivering, shivering. All the examples so far have
illustrated exact rhymes, because they share the same stressed vowel sounds as
well as sharing sounds that follow the vowel. In near rhyme (also called off
rhyme, slant rhyme, and approximate rhyme), the sounds are almost but not
exactly alike. A common form of near rhyme is consonance, which consists of
identical consonant sounds preceded by different vowel sounds: home, same;
worth, breath.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Rhyme scheme See rhyme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Rhythm: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A term used to refer to the recurrence of stressed and unstressed
sounds in poetry. Depending on how sounds are arranged, the rhythm of a poem
may be fast or slow, choppy or smooth. Poets use rhythm to create pleasurable
sound patterns and to reinforce meanings. Rhythm in prose arises from pattern
repetitions of sounds and pauses that create looser rhythmic effects. See also
meter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Rising action See plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Rising meter See meter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Romantic comedy See comedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Round character See character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Run-on line See enjambment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Sarcasm See irony.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Satire: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The literary art of ridiculing a folly or vice in order to expose or
correct it. The object of satire is usually some human frailty; people,
institutions, ideas, and things are all fair game for satirists. Satire evokes
attitudes of amusement, contempt, scorn, or indignation toward its faulty
subject in the hope of somehow improving it. See also irony, parody.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Scansion: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The process of measuring the stresses in a line of verse in order to
determine the metrical pattern of the line. See also line, meter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Scene In drama: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> a scene is a subdivision of an act. In modern plays, scenes usually
consist of units of action in which there are no changes in the setting or
breaks in the continuity of time. According to traditional conventions, a scene
changes when the location of the action shifts or when a new character enters.
See also act, convention, drama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Script: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The written text of a play, which includes the dialogue between
characters, stage directions, and often other expository information. See also
drama, exposition, prologue, stage directions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Sentimentality: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A pejorative term used to describe the effort by an author to induce
emotional responses in the reader that exceed what the situation warrants.
Sentimentality especially pertains to such emotions as pathos and sympathy; it
cons readers into falling for the mass murderer who is devoted to stray cats,
and it requires that readers do not examine such illogical responses. Clichés
and stock responses are the key ingredients of sentimentality in literature.
See also cliché, stock responses.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Sestet A stanza consisting of exactly six lines. See also stanza.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Sestina: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A type of fixed form poetry consisting of thirty-six lines of any
length divided into six sestets and a three-line concluding stanza called an
envoy. The six words at the end of the first sestet’s lines must also appear at
the ends of the other five sestets, in varying order. These six words must also
appear in the envoy, where they often resonate important themes. An example of
this highly demanding form of poetry is Elizabeth Bishop’s "Sestina."
See also sestet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Setting: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The physical and social context in which the action of a story
occurs. The major elements of setting are the time, the place, and the social
environment that frames the characters. Setting can be used to evoke a mood or
atmosphere that will prepare the reader for what is to come, as in Nathaniel
Hawthorne’s short story "Young Goodman Brown." Sometimes, writers
choose a particular setting because of traditional associations with that
setting that are closely related to the action of a story. For example, stories
filled with adventure or romance often take place in exotic locales.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Shakespearean sonnet See sonnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Showing See character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Simile: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A common figure of speech that makes an explicit comparison between
two things by using words such as like, as, than, appears, and seems: "A
sip of Mrs. Cook’s coffee is like a punch in the stomach." The
effectiveness of this simile is created by the differences between the two
things compared. There would be no simile if the comparison were stated this
way: "Mrs. Cook’s coffee is as strong as the cafeteria’s coffee."
This is a literal translation because Mrs. Cook’s coffee is compared with
something like it—another kind of coffee. See also figures of speech, metaphor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Slant rhyme See rhyme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Sociological criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An approach to literature that examines social groups, relationships,
and values as they are manifested in literature. Sociological approaches emphasize
the nature and effect of the social forces that shape power relationships
between groups or classes of people. Such readings treat literature as either a
document reflecting social conditions or a product of those conditions. The
former view brings into focus the social milieu; the latter emphasizes the
work. Two important forms of sociological criticism are Marxist and feminist
approaches. See also feminist criticism, marxist criticism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Soliloquy: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A dramatic convention by means of which a character, alone onstage,
utters his or her thoughts aloud. Playwrights use soliloquies as a convenient
way to inform the audience about a character’s motivations and state of mind.
Shakespeare’s Hamlet delivers perhaps the best known of all soliloquies, which
begins: "To be or not to be." See also aside, convention.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Sonnet: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A fixed form of lyric poetry that consists of fourteen lines, usually
written in iambic pentameter. There are two basic types of sonnets, the Italian
and the English. The Italian sonnet, also known as the <b>Petrarchan sonnet</b>,
is divided into an octave, which typically rhymes abbaabba, and a sestet, which
may have varying rhyme schemes. Common rhyme patterns in the sestet are cdecde,
cdcdcd, and cdccdc. Very often the octave presents a situation, attitude, or
problem that the sestet comments upon or resolves, as in John Keats’s "On
First Looking into Chapman’s Homer." The English sonnet, also known as the
Shakespearean sonnet, is organized into three quatrains and a couplet, which
typically rhyme abab cdcd efef gg. This rhyme scheme is more suited to English
poetry because English has fewer rhyming words than Italian. English sonnets, because
of their four-part organization, also have more flexibility with respect to
where thematic breaks can occur. Frequently, however, the most pronounced break
or turn comes with the concluding couplet, as in Shakespeare’s "Shall I
compare thee to a summer’s day?" See also couplet, iambic pentameter,
line, octave, quatrain, sestet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Speaker: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The voice used by an author to tell a story or speak a poem. The
speaker is often a created identity, and should not automatically be equated
with the author’s self. See also narrator, persona, point of view.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Spondee See foot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Stage directions: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A playwright’s written instructions about how the actors are to move
and behave in a play. They explain in which direction characters should move,
what facial expressions they should assume, and so on. See also drama, script.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Stanza In poetry: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> stanza refers to a grouping of lines, set off by a space, that
usually has a set pattern of meter and rhyme. See also line, meter, rhyme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Static character See character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Stock character See character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Stock responses Predictable: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> conventional reactions to language, characters, symbols, or
situations. The flag, motherhood, puppies, God, and peace are common objects
used to elicit stock responses from unsophisticated audiences. See also cliché,
sentimentality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Stream-of-consciousness technique: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The most intense use of a central consciousness in narration. The
stream-of-consciousness technique takes a reader inside a character’s mind to
reveal perceptions, thoughts, and feelings on a conscious or unconscious level.
This technique suggests the flow of thought as well as its content; hence,
complete sentences may give way to fragments as the character’s mind makes
rapid associations free of conventional logic or transitions. James Joyce’s novel
Ulysses makes extensive use of this narrative technique. See also narrator,
point of view.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Stress: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The emphasis, or accent, given a syllable in pronunciation. See also
accent.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Style: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The distinctive and unique manner in which a writer arranges words to
achieve particular effects. Style essentially combines the idea to be expressed
with the individuality of the author. These arrangements include individual
word choices as well as matters such as the length of sentences, their
structure, tone, and use of irony. See also diction, irony, tone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Subplot: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The secondary action of a story, complete and interesting in its own
right, that reinforces or contrasts with the main plot. There may be more than
one subplot, and sometimes as many as three, four, or even more, running
through a piece of fiction. Subplots are generally either analogous to the main
plot, thereby enhancing our understanding of it, or extraneous to the main
plot, to provide relief from it. See also plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Suspense: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The anxious anticipation of a reader or an audience as to the outcome
of a story, especially concerning the character or characters with whom
sympathetic attachments are formed. Suspense helps to secure and sustain the
interest of the reader or audience throughout a work.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Symbol: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A person, object, image, word, or event that evokes a range of
additional meaning beyond and usually more abstract than its literal
significance. Symbols are educational devices for evoking complex ideas without
having to resort to painstaking explanations that would make a story more like
an essay than an experience. Conventional symbols have meanings that are widely
recognized by a society or culture. Some conventional symbols are the Christian
cross, the Star of David, a swastika, or a nation’s flag. Writers use
conventional symbols to reinforce meanings. Kate Chopin, for example,
emphasizes the spring setting in "The Story of an Hour" as a way of
suggesting the renewed sense of life that Mrs. Mallard feels when she thinks
herself free from her husband. A literary or contextual symbol can be a
setting, character, action, object, name, or anything else in a work that
maintains its literal significance while suggesting other meanings. Such
symbols go beyond conventional symbols; they gain their symbolic meaning within
the context of a specific story. For example, the white whale in Melville’s
Moby-Dick takes on multiple symbolic meanings in the work, but these meanings
do not automatically carry over into other stories about whales. The meanings
suggested by Melville’s whale are specific to that text; therefore, it becomes
a contextual symbol. See also allegory.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Synecdoche See metaphor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Syntax: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The ordering of words into meaningful verbal patterns such as
phrases, clauses, and sentences. Poets often manipulate syntax, changing
conventional word order, to place certain emphasis on particular words. Emily
Dickinson, for instance, writes about being surprised by a snake in her poem
"A narrow Fellow in the Grass," and includes this line: "His notice
sudden is." In addition to the alliterative hissing s-sounds here,
Dickinson also effectively manipulates the line’s syntax so that the verb is
appears unexpectedly at the end, making the snake’s hissing presence all the
more "sudden."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Terza rima: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> An interlocking three-line rhyme scheme: aba, bcb, cdc, ded, and so
on. Dante’s The Divine Comedy and Frost’s "Acquainted with the Night"
are written in terza rima. See also rhyme, tercet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Theme: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The central meaning or dominant idea in a literary work. A theme
provides a unifying point around which the plot, characters, setting, point of
view, symbols, and other elements of a work are organized. It is important not
to mistake the theme for the actual subject of the work; the theme refers to
the abstract concept that is made concrete through the images,
characterization, and action of the text. In nonfiction, however, the theme
generally refers to the main topic of the discourse.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Thesis: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The central idea of an essay. The thesis is a complete sentence
(although sometimes it may require more than one sentence) that establishes the
topic of the essay in clear, unambiguous language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Tone: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The author’s implicit attitude toward the reader or the people,
places, and events in a work as revealed by the elements of the author’s style.
Tone may be characterized as serious or ironic, sad or happy, private or
public, angry or affectionate, bitter or nostalgic, or any other attitudes and
feelings that human beings experience. See also style.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Tragedy: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A story that presents courageous individuals who confront powerful
forces within or outside themselves with a dignity that reveals the breadth and
depth of the human spirit in the face of failure, defeat, and even death.
Tragedies recount an individual’s downfall; they usually begin high and end
low. Shakespeare is known for his tragedies, including Macbeth, King Lear,
Othello, and Hamlet. The revenge tragedy is a well-established type of drama
that can be traced back to Greek and Roman plays, particularly through the
Roman playwright Seneca (c. 3 b.c.–a.d. 63). Revenge tragedies basically
consist of a murder that has to be avenged by a relative of the victim.
Typically, the victim’s ghost appears to demand revenge, and invariably madness
of some sort is worked into subsequent events, which ultimately end in the
deaths of the murderer, the avenger, and a number of other characters.
Shakespeare’s Hamlet subscribes to the basic ingredients of revenge tragedy,
but it also transcends these conventions because Hamlet contemplates not merely
revenge but suicide and the meaning of life itself. A tragic flaw is an error
or defect in the tragic hero that leads to his downfall, such as greed, pride,
or ambition. This flaw may be a result of bad character, bad judgment, an
inherited weakness, or any other defect of character. Tragic irony is a form of
dramatic irony found in tragedies such as Oedipus the King, in which Oedipus
ironically ends up hunting himself. See also comedy, drama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Tragicomedy: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A type of drama that combines certain elements of both tragedy and
comedy. The play’s plot tends to be serious, leading to a terrible catastrophe,
until an unexpected turn in events leads to a reversal of circumstance, and the
story ends happily. Tragicomedy often employs a romantic, fast-moving plot
dealing with love, jealousy, disguises, treachery, intrigue, and surprises, all
moving toward a melodramatic resolution. Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice is a
tragicomedy. See also comedy, drama, melodrama, tragedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Triplet: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A tercet in which all three lines rhyme. See also tercet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Understatement: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> The opposite of hyperbole, understatement (or litotes) refers to a
figure of speech that says less than is intended. Understatement usually has an
ironic effect, and sometimes may be used for comic purposes, as in Mark Twain’s
statement, "The reports of my death are greatly exaggerated." See
also hyperbole, irony.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Verse: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A generic term used to describe poetic lines composed in a measured
rhythmical pattern, that are often, but not necessarily, rhymed. See also line,
meter, rhyme, rhythm.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Villanelle: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A type of fixed form poetry consisting of nineteen lines of any
length divided into six stanzas: five tercets and a concluding quatrain. The
first and third lines of the initial tercet rhyme; these rhymes are repeated in
each subsequent tercet (aba) and in the final two lines of the quatrain (abaa).
Line 1 appears in its entirety as lines 6, 12, and 18, while line 3 reappears
as lines 9, 15, and 19. Dylan Thomas’s "Do not go gentle into that good
night" is a villanelle. See also fixed form, quatrain, rhyme, tercet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Well-made play: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"> A realistic style of play that employs conventions including plenty
of suspense created by meticulous plotting. Well-made plays are tightly and
logically constructed, and lead to a logical resolution that is favorable to
the protagonist. This dramatic structure was popularized in France by Eugène
Scribe (1791–1861) and Victorien Sardou (1831–1908) and was adopted by Henrik
Ibsen. See also character, plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-5670912418715503512013-08-21T18:57:00.000+06:002013-08-21T18:57:21.787+06:00Glossary of Poetic Terms<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Allegory<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A symbolic narrative in
which the surface details imply a secondary meaning. Allegory often takes the
form of a story in which the characters represent moral qualities. The most
famous example in English is John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, in which the
name of the central character, Pilgrim, epitomizes the book's allegorical
nature. Kay Boyle's story "Astronomer's Wife" and Christina
Rossetti's poem "Up-Hill" both contain allegorical elements.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Alliteration<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The repetition of
consonant sounds, especially at the beginning of words. Example: "Fetched
fresh, as I suppose, off some sweet wood." Hopkins, "In the Valley of
the Elwy."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Anapest <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Two unaccented syllables
followed by an accented one, as in com-pre-HEND or in-ter-VENE. An anapestic
meter rises to the accented beat as in Byron's lines from "The Destruction
of Sennacherib": "And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the
sea, / When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Antagonist<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A character or force
against which another character struggles. Creon is Antigone's antagonist in
Sophocles' play Antigone; Teiresias is the antagonist of Oedipus in Sophocles'
Oedipus the King. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Assonance<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The repetition of similar
vowel sounds in a sentence or a line of poetry or prose, as in "I rose and
told him of my woe." Whitman's "When I Heard the Learn'd
Astronomer" contains assonantal "I's" in the following lines:
"How soon unaccountable I became tired and sick, / Till rising and gliding
out I wander'd off by myself."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Aubade<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A love lyric in which the
speaker complains about the arrival of the dawn, when he must part from his
lover. John Donne's "The Sun Rising" exemplifies this poetic genre.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Ballad<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A narrative poem written
in four-line stanzas, characterized by swift action and narrated in a direct
style. The Anonymous medieval ballad, "Barbara Allan," exemplifies
the genre.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Blank verse<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A line of poetry or prose
in unrhymed iambic pentameter. Shakespeare's sonnets, Milton's epic poem
Paradise Lost, and Robert Frost's meditative poems such as "Birches"
include many lines of blank verse. Here are the opening blank verse lines of
"Birches": When I see birches bend to left and right / Across the
lines of straighter darker trees, / I like to think some boy's been swinging
them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Caesura<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A strong pause within a
line of verse. The following stanza from Hardy's "The Man He Killed"
contains caesuras in the middle two lines: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">He thought he'd 'list,
perhaps,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Off-hand-like--just as I--<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Was out of work-had sold
his traps--<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">No other reason why.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Character<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">An imaginary person that
inhabits a literary work. Literary characters may be major or minor, static
(unchanging) or dynamic (capable of change). In Shakespeare's Othello,
Desdemona is a major character, but one who is static, like the minor character
Bianca. Othello is a major character who is dynamic, exhibiting an ability to
change.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Characterization<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The means by which writers
present and reveal character. Although techniques of characterization are
complex, writers typically reveal characters through their speech, dress,
manner, and actions. Readers come to understand the character Miss Emily in
Faulkner's story "A Rose for Emily" through what she says, how she
lives, and what she does.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Climax<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The turning point of the
action in the plot of a play or story. The climax represents the point of
greatest tension in the work. The climax of John Updike's "A&P,"
for example, occurs when Sammy quits his job as a cashier.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Closed form<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A type of form or
structure in poetry characterized by regularity and consistency in such
elements as rhyme, line length, and metrical pattern. Frost's "Stopping By
Woods on a Snowy Evening" provides one of many examples. A single stanza
illustrates some of the features of closed form:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Whose woods these are I
think I know.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">His house is in the
village though.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">He will not see me
stopping here<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">To watch his woods fill up
with snow. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Complication<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">An intensification of the
conflict in a story or play. Complication builds up, accumulates, and develops
the primary or central conflict in a literary work. Frank O'Connor's story
"Guests of the Nation" provides a striking example, as does Ralph
Ellison's "Battle Royal."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Conflict<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A struggle between
opposing forces in a story or play, usually resolved by the end of the work.
The conflict may occur within a character as well as between characters. Lady
Gregory's one-act play The Rising of the Moon exemplifies both types of
conflict as the Policeman wrestles with his conscience in an inner conflict and
confronts an antagonist in the person of the ballad singer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Connotation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The associations called up
by a word that goes beyond its dictionary meaning. Poets, especially, tend to
use words rich in connotation. Dylan Thomas's "Do Not Go Gentle into That
Good Night" includes intensely connotative language, as in these lines:
"Good men, the last wave by, crying how bright / Their frail deeds might
have danced in a green bay, / Rage, rage against the dying of the light."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Convention<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A customary feature of a
literary work, such as the use of a chorus in Greek tragedy, the inclusion of
an explicit moral in a fable, or the use of a particular rhyme scheme in a
villanelle. Literary conventions are defining features of particular literary
genres, such as novel, short story, ballad, sonnet, and play.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Couplet<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A pair of rhymed lines
that may or may not constitute a separate stanza in a poem. Shakespeare's
sonnets end in rhymed couplets, as in "For thy sweet love remembered such
wealth brings / That then I scorn to change my state with kings."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Dactyl<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A stressed syllable
followed by two unstressed ones, as in FLUT-ter-ing or BLUE-ber-ry. The
following playful lines illustrate double dactyls, two dactyls per line:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Higgledy, piggledy,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Emily Dickinson<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Gibbering, jabbering. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Denotation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The dictionary meaning of
a word. Writers typically play off a word's denotative meaning against its
connotations, or suggested and implied associational implications. In the
following lines from Peter Meinke's "Advice to My Son" the references
to flowers and fruit, bread and wine denote specific things, but also suggest
something beyond the literal, dictionary meanings of the words: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">To be specific, between
the peony and rose<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Plant squash and spinach,
turnips and tomatoes;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Beauty is nectar and
nectar, in a desert, saves--<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">and always serve bread
with your wine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">But, son, always serve
wine. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Denouement<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The resolution of the plot
of a literary work. The denouement of Hamlet takes place after the catastrophe,
with the stage littered with corpses. During the denouement Fortinbras makes an
entrance and a speech, and Horatio speaks his sweet lines in praise of Hamlet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Dialogue<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The conversation of
characters in a literary work. In fiction, dialogue is typically enclosed
within quotation marks. In plays, characters' speech is preceded by their
names.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Diction<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The selection of words in
a literary work. A work's diction forms one of its centrally important literary
elements, as writers use words to convey action, reveal character, imply
attitudes, identify themes, and suggest values. We can speak of the diction
particular to a character, as in Iago's and Desdemona's very different ways of
speaking in Othello. We can also refer to a poet's diction as represented over
the body of his or her work, as in Donne's or Hughes's diction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Elegy<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A lyric poem that laments
the dead. Robert Hayden's "Those Winter Sundays" is elegiac in tone.
A more explicitly identified elegy is W.H. Auden's "In Memory of William
Butler Yeats" and his "Funeral Blues."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Elision<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The omission of an
unstressed vowel or syllable to preserve the meter of a line of poetry.
Alexander uses elision in "Sound and Sense": "Flies o'er th'
unbending corn...."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Enjambment<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A run-on line of poetry in
which logical and grammatical sense carries over from one line into the next.
An enjambed line differs from an end-stopped line in which the grammatical and
logical sense is completed within the line. In the opening lines of Robert
Browning's "My Last Duchess," for example, the first line is end-stopped
and the second enjambed:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">That's my last Duchess
painted on the wall,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Looking as if she were
alive. I call<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">That piece a wonder,
now.... <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Epic<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A long narrative poem that
records the adventures of a hero. Epics typically chronicle the origins of a
civilization and embody its central values. Examples from western literature
include Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil's Aeneid, and Milton's Paradise Lost.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Epigram<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A brief witty poem, often
satirical. Alexander Pope's "Epigram Engraved on the Collar of a Dog"
exemplifies the genre:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">I am his Highness' dog at
Kew; Pray tell me,
sir, whose dog are you? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Exposition<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The first stage of a
fictional or dramatic plot, in which necessary background information is
provided. Ibsen's A Doll's House, for instance, begins with a conversation
between the two central characters, a dialogue that fills the audience in on
events that occurred before the action of the play begins, but which are
important in the development of its plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Falling action<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">In the plot of a story or
play, the action following the climax of the work that moves it towards its
denouement or resolution. The falling action of Othello begins after Othello
realizes that Iago is responsible for plotting against him by spurring him on
to murder his wife, Desdemona.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Falling meter<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Poetic meters such as
trochaic and dactylic that move or fall from a stressed to an unstressed
syllable. The nonsense line, "Higgledy, piggledy," is dactylic, with
the accent on the first syllable and the two syllables following falling off
from that accent in each word. Trochaic meter is represented by this line:
"Hip-hop, be-bop, treetop--freedom."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Fiction<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">An imagined story, whether
in prose, poetry, or drama. Ibsen's Nora is fictional, a
"make-believe" character in a play, as are Hamlet and Othello. Characters
like Robert Browning's Duke and Duchess from his poem "My Last
Duchess" are fictional as well, though they may be based on actual
historical individuals. And, of course, characters in stories and novels are
fictional, though they, too, may be based, in some way, on real people. The
important thing to remember is that writers embellish and embroider and alter
actual life when they use real life as the basis for their work. They
fictionalize facts, and deviate from real-life situations as they "make
things up."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Figurative language<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A form of language use in
which writers and speakers convey something other than the literal meaning of
their words. Examples include hyperbole or exaggeration, litotes or
understatement, simile and metaphor, which employ comparison, and synecdoche
and metonymy, in which a part of a thing stands for the whole.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Flashback<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">An interruption of a
work's chronology to describe or present an incident that occurred prior to the
main time frame of a work's action. Writers use flashbacks to complicate the
sense of chronology in the plot of their works and to convey the richness of
the experience of human time. Faulkner's story "A Rose for Emily"
includes flashbacks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Foil<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A character who contrasts
and parallels the main character in a play or story. Laertes, in Hamlet, is a
foil for the main character; in Othello, Emilia and Bianca are foils for Desdemona.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Foot<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A metrical unit composed
of stressed and unstressed syllables. For example, an iamb or iambic foot is
represented by ˘', that is, an unaccented syllable followed by an accented one.
Frost's line "Whose woods these are I think I know" contains four
iambs, and is thus an iambic foot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Foreshadowing<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Hints of what is to come
in the action of a play or a story. Ibsen's A Doll's House includes
foreshadowing as does Synge's Riders to the Sea. So, too, do Poe's "Cask
of Amontillado" and Chopin's "Story of an Hour."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Free verse<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Poetry without a regular
pattern of meter or rhyme. The verse is "free" in not being bound by
earlier poetic conventions requiring poems to adhere to an explicit and
identifiable meter and rhyme scheme in a form such as the sonnet or ballad.
Modern and contemporary poets of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries often
employ free verse. Williams's "This Is Just to Say" is one of many
examples.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Hyperbole<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A figure of speech
involving exaggeration. John Donne uses hyperbole in his poem: "Song: Go
and Catch a Falling Star."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Iamb<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">An unstressed syllable
followed by a stressed one, as in to-DAY. See Foot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Image<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A concrete representation
of a sense impression, a feeling, or an idea. Imagery refers to the pattern of
related details in a work. In some works one image predominates either by
recurring throughout the work or by appearing at a critical point in the plot.
Often writers use multiple images throughout a work to suggest states of
feeling and to convey implications of thought and action. Some modern poets,
such as Ezra Pound and William Carlos Williams, write poems that lack
discursive explanation entirely and include only images. Among the most famous
examples is Pound's poem "In a Station of the Metro":<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The apparition of these
faces in the crowd;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Petals on a wet, black
bough. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Imagery<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The pattern of related
comparative aspects of language, particularly of images, in a literary work.
Imagery of light and darkness pervade James Joyce's stories "Araby,"
"The Boarding House," and "The Dead." So, too, does
religious imagery. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Irony<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A contrast or discrepancy
between what is said and what is meant or between what happens and what is
expected to happen in life and in literature. In verbal irony, characters say
the opposite of what they mean. In irony of circumstance or situation, the
opposite of what is expected occurs. In dramatic irony, a character speaks in
ignorance of a situation or event known to the audience or to the other
characters. Flannery O'Connor's short stories employ all these forms of irony,
as does Poe's "Cask of Amontillado."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Literal language<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A form of language in
which writers and speakers mean exactly what their words denote. See Figurative
language, Denotation, and Connotation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Lyric poem<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A type of poem
characterized by brevity, compression, and the expression of feeling. Most of
the poems in this book are lyrics. The anonymous "Western Wind"
epitomizes the genre:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Western wind, when will
thou blow,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The small rain down can
rain?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Christ, if my love were in
my arms<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">And I in my bed again! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Metaphor<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A comparison between
essentially unlike things without an explicitly comparative word such as like
or as. An example is "My love is a red, red rose,"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">From Burns's "A Red,
Red Rose." Langston Hughes's "Dream Deferred" is built entirely
of metaphors. Metaphor is one of the most important of literary uses of
language. Shakespeare employs a wide range of metaphor in his sonnets and his
plays, often in such density and profusion that readers are kept busy analyzing
and interpreting and unraveling them. Compare Simile.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Meter<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The measured pattern of
rhythmic accents in poems. See Foot and Iamb.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Metonymy<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A figure of speech in
which a closely related term is substituted for an object or idea. An example:
"We have always remained loyal to the crown." See Synecdoche.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Narrative poem<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A poem that tells a story.
See Ballad.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Narrator<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The voice and implied
speaker of a fictional work, to be distinguished from the actual living author.
For example, the narrator of Joyce's "Araby" is not James Joyce
himself, but a literary fictional character created expressly to tell the
story. Faulkner's "A Rose for Emily" contains a communal narrator,
identified only as "we." See Point of view.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Octave<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">An eight-line unit, which
may constitute a stanza; or a section of a poem, as in the octave of a sonnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Ode <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A long, stately poem in
stanzas of varied length, meter, and form. Usually a serious poem on an exalted
subject, such as Horace's "Eheu fugaces," but sometimes a more
lighthearted work, such as Neruda's "Ode to My Socks."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Onomatopoeia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The use of words to
imitate the sounds they describe. Words such as buzz and crack are
onomatopoetic. The following line from Pope's "Sound and Sense" onomatopoetically
imitates in sound what it describes:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">When Ajax strives some
rock's vast weight to throw,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The line too labors, and
the words move slow. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Most often, however,
onomatopoeia refers to words and groups of words, such as Tennyson's
description of the "murmur of innumerable bees," which attempts to
capture the sound of a swarm of bees buzzing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Open form<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A type of structure or
form in poetry characterized by freedom from regularity and consistency in such
elements as rhyme, line length, metrical pattern, and overall poetic structure.
E.E. Cummings's "[Buffalo Bill's]" is one example. See also Free
verse.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Parody<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A humorous, mocking
imitation of a literary work, sometimes sarcastic, but often playful and even
respectful in its playful imitation. Examples include Bob McKenty's parody of
Frost's "Dust of Snow" and Kenneth Koch's parody of Williams's
"This is Just to Say."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Personification<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The endowment of inanimate
objects or abstract concepts with animate or living qualities. An example:
"The yellow leaves flaunted their color gaily in the breeze."
Wordsworth's "I wandered lonely as a cloud" includes personification.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Plot<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The unified structure of
incidents in a literary work. See Conflict, Climax, Denouement, andFlashback.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Point of view<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The angle of vision from
which a story is narrated. See Narrator. A work's point of view can be: first
person, in which the narrator is a character or an observer, respectively;
objective, in which the narrator knows or appears to know no more than the reader;
omniscient, in which the narrator knows everything about the characters; and
limited omniscient, which allows the narrator to know some things about the
characters but not everything.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Protagonist<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The main character of a
literary work--Hamlet and Othello in the plays named after them, Gregor Samsa
in Kafka's Metamorphosis, Paul in Lawrence's "Rocking-Horse Winner."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Pyrrhic<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A metrical foot with two
unstressed syllables ("of the").<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Quatrain<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A four-line stanza in a
poem, the first four lines and the second four lines in a Petrachan sonnet. A
Shakespearean sonnet contains three quatrains followed by a couplet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Recognition<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The point at which a
character understands his or her situation as it really is. Sophocles' Oedipus
comes to this point near the end of Oedipus the King; Othello comes to a
similar understanding of his situation in Act V of Othello.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Resolution<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The sorting out or
unraveling of a plot at the end of a play, novel, or story. See Plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Reversal<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The point at which the
action of the plot turns in an unexpected direction for the protagonist.
Oedipus's and Othello's recognitions are also reversals. They learn what they
did not expect to learn. See Recognition and also Irony.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Rhyme<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The matching of final
vowel or consonant sounds in two or more words. The following stanza of
"Richard Cory" employs alternate rhyme, with the third line rhyming
with the first and the fourth with the second:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Whenever Richard Cory went
down town,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">We people on the pavement
looked at him;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">He was a gentleman from
sole to crown<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Clean favored and
imperially slim. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Rhythm<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The recurrence of accent
or stress in lines of verse. In the following lines from "Same in
Blues" by Langston Hughes, the accented words and syllables are
underlined:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">I said to my baby,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Baby take it slow....<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Lulu said to Leonard<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">I want a diamond ring<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Rising action<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A set of conflicts and
crises that constitute the part of a play's or story's plot leading up to the
climax. See Climax, Denouement, and Plot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Rising meter<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Poetic meters such as
iambic and anapestic that move or ascend from an unstressed to a stressed
syllable. See Anapest, Iamb, and Falling meter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Satire<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A literary work that
criticizes human misconduct and ridicules vices, stupidities, and follies.
Swift's Gulliver's Travels is a famous example. Chekhov's Marriage Proposal and
O'Connor's "Everything That Rises Must Converge," have strong
satirical elements.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Sestet<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A six-line unit of verse
constituting a stanza or section of a poem; the last six lines of an Italian
sonnet. Examples: Petrarch's "If it is not love, then what is it that I
feel," and Frost's "Design."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Sestina<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A poem of thirty-nine
lines and written in iambic pentameter. Its six-line stanza repeat in an
intricate and prescribed order the final word in each of the first six lines.
After the sixth stanza, there is a three-line envoi, which uses the six
repeating words, two per line.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Setting<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The time and place of a
literary work that establish its context. The stories of Sandra Cisneros are
set in the American southwest in the mid to late 20th century, those of James
Joyce in Dublin, Ireland in the early 20th century.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Simile<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A figure of speech
involving a comparison between unlike things using like, as, or as though. An
example: "My love is like a red, red rose."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Sonnet<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A fourteen-line poem in
iambic pentameter. The Shakespearean or English sonnet is arranged as three
quatrains and a final couplet, rhyming abab cdcd efef gg. The Petrarchan or
Italian sonnet divides into two parts: an eight-line octave and a six-line
sestet, rhyming abba abba cde cde or abba abba cd cd cd.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Spondee<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A metricalfoot represented
by two stressed syllables, such as KNICK-KNACK.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Stanza<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A division or unit of a
poem that is repeated in the same form--either with similar or identical patterns
or rhyme and meter, or with variations from one stanza to another. The stanzas
of Gertrude Schnackenberg's "Signs" are regular; those of Rita Dove's
"Canary" are irregular.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Style<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The way an author chooses
words, arranges them in sentences or in lines of dialogue or verse, and
develops ideas and actions with description, imagery, and other literary
techniques. See Connotation, Denotation, Diction, Figurative language, Image,
Imagery, Irony, Metaphor, Narrator, Point of view, Syntax, and Tone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Subject<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">What a story or play is
about; to be distinguished from plot and theme. Faulkner's "A Rose for
Emily" is about the decline of a particular way of life endemic to the
American south before the civil war. Its plot concerns how Faulkner describes and
organizes the actions of the story's characters. Its theme is the overall
meaning Faulkner conveys.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Subplot<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A subsidiary or
subordinate or parallel plot in a play or story that coexists with the main
plot. The story of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern forms a subplot with the
overall plot of Hamlet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Symbol<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">An object or action in a
literary work that means more than itself, that stands for something beyond
itself. The glass unicorn in The Glass Menagerie, the rocking horse in
"The Rocking-Horse Winner," the road in Frost's "The Road Not
Taken"--all are symbols in this sense.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Synecdoche<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A figure of speech in
which a part is substituted for the whole. An example: "Lend me a
hand." See Metonymy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Syntax<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The grammatical order of
words in a sentence or line of verse or dialogue. The organization of words and
phrases and clauses in sentences of prose, verse, and dialogue. In the
following example, normal syntax (subject, verb, object order) is inverted:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">"Whose woods these
are I think I know."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Tercet<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A three-line stanza, as
the stanzas in Frost's "Acquainted With the Night" and Shelley's
"Ode to the West Wind." The three-line stanzas or sections that
together constitute the sestet of a Petrarchan or Italian sonnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Theme<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The idea of a literary
work abstracted from its details of language, character, and action, and cast
in the form of a generalization. See discussion of Dickinson's "Crumbling
is not an instant's Act."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Tone<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The implied attitude of a
writer toward the subject and characters of a work, as, for example, Flannery
O'Connor's ironic tone in her "Good Country People." See Irony.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Trochee<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">An accented syllable
followed by an unaccented one, as in FOOT-ball.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Understatement<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A figure of speech in
which a writer or speaker says less than what he or she means; the opposite of
exaggeration. The last line of Frost's "Birches" illustrates this
literary device: "One could do worse than be a swinger of birches."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Villanelle<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A nineteen-line lyric poem
that relies heavily on repetition. The first and third lines alternate
throughout the poem, which is structured in six stanzas --five tercets and a
concluding quatrain. Examples include Bishop's "One Art," Roethke's
"The Waking," and Thomas's "Do Not Go Gentle into That Good
Night."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-56701429127189642732013-08-21T18:55:00.001+06:002014-08-20T14:50:35.754+06:00Lamb to the Slaughter – Roald Dahl.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBu1yfWrVDYy810AyVf8V6xi3K8caJ0v2tM3ZfKoEhabe4a7o6PNS1xSl-aqHAsPCKFePh22rVIT7rFO9TaGN1IIFd583oHG3A32_WVMF5OG_IijXMuhU9LURCr5HgOXSdJoH736Uze74/s1600/images+(3).jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBu1yfWrVDYy810AyVf8V6xi3K8caJ0v2tM3ZfKoEhabe4a7o6PNS1xSl-aqHAsPCKFePh22rVIT7rFO9TaGN1IIFd583oHG3A32_WVMF5OG_IijXMuhU9LURCr5HgOXSdJoH736Uze74/s1600/images+(3).jpg" /></a></div>
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<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Sub-genre: </b> Contemporary Realistic Fiction<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Point of View:</b> Third Person Omniscient<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Devices used: </b> Dramatic Irony, Situational Irony,
Verbal Irony & Black Humour.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Dramatic Irony:</b> the author causes a character
(acting as the author's mouthpiece) to speak or act in a way contrary to the
truth. This technique highlights the literal facts by portraying a fictional
person who is strikingly ignorant of them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Situational
Irony: a factual truth highlighted by a character's complete ignorance of it or
his belief in the opposite of it. Such situations are deliberately used to
emphasize facts and to taunt humans for not being aware of them — when they
could easily have been enlightened.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Black humour</b> is the use of the grotesque,
morbid, or absurd for darkly comic purposes. Black humor became widespread in
popular culture, especially in literature and film, beginning in the 1950s; it
remains popular toward the end of the twentieth century. Joseph Heller’s novel <i>Catch-22</i>
(1961) is one of the best-known examples in American fiction. The short stories
of James Thurber and the stories and novels of Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. also offer
examples. The image of the cheerful housewife suddenly smashing her husband’s
skull with the frozen joint of meat is farcically quite disturbing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Dark Humour Examples:<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The
image of the cheerful housewife suddenly smashing her husband’s skull with the
frozen joint of meat intended for his dinner is itself darkly humorous for its
unexpectedness and the grotesque incongruity of the murder weapon. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">There
is a morbid but funny double meaning, too, in Mary’s response to her grocer’s
question about meat: “I’ve got meat, thanks. I got a nice leg of lamb from the
freezer.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">She
did indeed get a leg of lamb from the freezer, and after she used it as a club,
she found herself with a rather large portion of dead meat on her living-room
floor. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Also
darkly funny is the grocer’s question about what she plans to give her husband
“afterwards,” that is, for dessert. From Mary’s point of view, Patrick has
already gotten his “just desserts,” and there will be no more “afterwards” for
him! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The
ultimate example of dark humor in “Lamb to the Slaughter” is, of course, the
spectacle of the policemen and detectives sitting around the Maloney kitchen
table, speculating about the murder weapon while they unwittingly devour it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Setting<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The
setting is symbolic: Its domestic primness implies Mary’s having bought into a
rather boring version of middle class happiness. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Symbols<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The
frozen leg of lamb is also symbolic and indeed constitutes the central symbol
of the story. The piece of meat is already a token of violence: an animal
traditionally viewed as meek and gentle slaughtered for carnivorous
consumption. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The
notion of a lamb, moreover, resonates with biblical symbols, such as the
scapegoat mentioned in Leviticus, the ram that substitutes for Isaac in the
tale of Abraham and Isaac, or Jesus himself, “the Lamb of God.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">But
Dahl’s story reverses the connotation of these biblical images.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Summary of the
Plot<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Dahl
commences with a picture of static coziness in a middle-class, domestic
setting. Mary Maloney, six months pregnant, waits for her policeman husband
Patrick Maloney to come home from work. The scene emphasizes domesticity: ‘‘the
room was warm and clean, the curtains drawn.’’ Matching chairs, lamps, glasses,
and whisky, soda, and ice cubes await. Mary watches the clock, smiling quietly
to herself as each minute brings her husband closer to home. When he arrives,
she takes his coat and hangs it in the closet. The couple sits and drinks in
silence—Mary comfortable with the knowledge that Patrick does not like to talk
much until after the first drink. So by deliberate design, everything seems
normal until Mary notices that Patrick drains most of his drink in a single
swallow, and then pours himself another, very strong drink. Mary offers to fix
dinner and serve it to him so that he does not have to leave his chair,
although they usually dine out on Thursdays. She also offers to prepare a
snack. Patrick declines all her offers of food. The reader becomes aware of a
tension which escapes Mary’s full notice. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Patrick
confronts Mary and makes a speech, only the upshot of which is given
explicitly: ‘‘so there it is. . . . And I know it’s a kind of bad time to be telling
you, but there simply wasn’t any other way. Of course, I’ll give you money and
see you’re looked after. But there needn’t really be any fuss.’’ For reasons
which Dahl does not make explicit, Patrick has decided to leave his pregnant
wife. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Mary
goes into shock. At first she wonders if she imagined the whole thing. She
moves automatically to retrieve something from the basement freezer and prepare
supper. She returns with a frozen leg of lamb to find Patrick standing by a
window with his back to her. Hearing her come in, he tells her not to make
supper for him, that he is going out. With no narrative notice of any emotional
transformation, Mary walks up to him and brings the frozen joint of meat down
‘‘as hard as she could’’ on his head. Patrick falls dead. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">She
emerges from her shock to feel panic. Do the courts sentence pregnant women to
death? Do they execute both mother and child? Do they wait until the tenth
month? Not wanting to take a chance on her child’s life, she immediately begins
setting up an alibi. She puts the lamb in the oven to cook, washes her hands,
and tidies her hair and makeup. She hurries to her usual grocery store, telling
the grocer, Sam, that she needed potatoes and peas because Patrick did not want
to eat out and she was ‘‘caught . . . without any vegetables in the house.’’ In
a moment of truly black comedy, the grocer asks about dessert: ‘‘How about
afterwards? What are you going to give him for afterwards?’’ and she agrees to
a slice of cheesecake. On her way home, she mentally prepares herself to be
shocked by anything tragic or terrible she might find. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">When
she sees her husband’s corpse again, she remembers how much she once loved him,
and her tears of loss are genuine. She is sincerely distraught when she calls
the local police station—the one where Patrick has worked—to report what she
has found. Mary knows the policemen who report to the crime scene, and she
casts Sergeant Jack Noonan in the role of her comforter. A doctor, police
photographer, fingerprint expert, and two detectives join the investigation,
while Noonan periodically checks on Mary. She tells her story again, from the
beginning: Patrick came home, was too tired to go out for supper, so she left
him relaxing at home while she started the lamb cooking and then ran out for
vegetables. One detective checks with the grocer, who confirms Mary’s account.
No one seems to seriously consider her a suspect. The focus of the
investigation in on finding the murder weapon— which must be a large, heavy
blunt instrument. The detectives ask Mary about tools, and she professes
ignorance but says that there may be some out in the garage. She remains in a
chair while the house is searched. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Noonan
tries to persuade Mary to stay somewhere else for the night, but she refuses.
She asks him to bring her a drink and suggests that he have one too. Eventually
all of the police investigators are standing around, sipping drinks, tired from
their fruitless search. Noonan notices that the oven is still on and the lamb
has finished cooking. Mary thanks him for turning the oven off and then asks
her dead husband’s gathered colleagues–knowing that they have worked long past
their own mealtimes—to eat the dinner she had fixed for Patrick. She could not
eat a thing, she tells them, but Patrick would want her to offer them ‘‘decent
hospitality,’’ especially as they are the men who will catch her husband’s
killer. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The
final scene of the story concerns the policemen eating in the kitchen and
discussing the case while Mary listens from the living room. The men agree that
the killer probably discarded the massive murder weapon almost immediately, and
predict that they will find it on the premises. Another theorizes that the
weapon is probably ‘‘right under our very noses.’’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Themes<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Betrayal</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br />
‘‘Lamb to the Slaughter’’ tells of at least one betrayal: Patrick Maloney’s
unexplained decision to leave his pregnant wife. This violation of the
marriage-vow is obviously not the only betrayal in the story, however. Mary’s
killing of her husband is perhaps the ultimate betrayal. Her elaborately
planned alibi and convincing lies to the detectives also constitute betrayal. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Identity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br />
Dahl plays with the notion of identity both at the level of popular psychology
and at a somewhat more philosophical, or perhaps anthropological, level. At the
level of popular psychology, Dahl makes it clear through his description of the
Maloney household that Mary has internalized the bourgeois, or middle class,
ideal of a young mid-twentieth century housewife, maintaining a tidy home and
catering to her husband; pouring drinks when the man finishes his day is a
gesture that comes from movies and magazines of the day. Mary’s sudden
murderous action shatters the image that we have of her and that she seems to
have of herself. Dahl demonstrates, in the deadly fall of the frozen joint,
that ‘‘identity’’ can be fragile. (Once she shatters her own identity, Mary
must carefully reconstruct it for protective purposes, as when she sets up an
alibi by feigning a normal conversation with the grocer.) In the
anthropological sense, Dahl appears to suggest that, in essence, human beings
are fundamentally nasty and brutish creatures capable of precipitate and bloody
acts. Then there are the police detectives, who pride themselves on their
ability to solve a crime, but whom Mary sweetly tricks into consuming the main
exhibit. Their identity, or at least their competency, is thrown into doubt. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Love and Passion</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br />
At the beginning of ‘‘Lamb to the Slaughter,’’ Mary Maloney feels love and
physical passion for her husband Patrick. She luxuriates in his presence, in
the ‘‘warm male glow that came out of him to her,’’ and adores the way he sits,
walks, and behaves. Even far along into her pregnancy, she hurries to greet
him, and waits on him hand and foot—much more attentively, it appears from his
reactions, than he would like. Patrick is presumably motivated to leave his
wife by an overriding passion for something or someone else. Mary’s mention of
his failure to advance at work, and his own wish that she not make a ‘‘fuss’’
about their separation because ‘‘It wouldn’t be very good for my job’’ indicate
that it may be professional success that he desires. His treatment of his wife
does not suggest that he loves her. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Passivity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><br />
</b>The concept of
passivity figures in the story. The first pages of the story portray Mary’s
existence as almost mindlessly passive: she sits and watches the clock,
thinking that each minute brings her husband closer to her. She is content to
watch him closely and try to anticipate his moods and needs. Patrick’s
predictability up to this point is part of this passivity. The two are living a
clockwork life against which, in some way, each ultimately rebels. Passivity
appears as the repression of passion, and passion finds a way to reassert
itself. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Justice and Injustice<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br />
The question of justice and injustice is directly related to the question of
revenge. ‘‘Lamb to the Slaughter’’ narrates a train of injustices, beginning
with Patrick’s betrayal of Mary and their marriage, peaking with Mary’s killing
of Patrick, and finding its denouement in Mary’s deception of the investigating
officers. Patrick acts unjustly (or so it must be assumed on the basis of the
evidence) in announcing his abandonment of Mary, for this breaks the wedding
oath; Mary acts unustly, in a way far exceeding her husband’s injustice, in
killing Patrick, and she compounds the injustice by concealing it from the
authorities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Commentary<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">“Lamb
to The Slaughter” may be an easy read to understand its literal meaning, but
one needs to go little further than this to derive the true meaning the story
has to convey. In order to understand their meanings that lie concealed in the
title’s depth, the reader should be sensitive to scan the crux of the story.
Otherwise, one may get easily misled.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The
theme of deception is in fact introduced in the title itself. ‘Lamb to The
Slaughter’ is not to be understood as the usual gentle lamb which is taken to
the slaughter house, but as the lamb with immense potential to slaughter its
butcher.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The
protagonist of the story, Mrs. Maloney is an ideal wife who loves her husband
from the core of her heart and counts every single second of his presence to be
precious. She is no doubt a lady with lamb-like character with gentleness,
docility, devotion and homeliness, but she is also the most jovial person as
long as she is with Patrick, her husband. She is also projected as a person who
can do anything for her husband’s sake.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Contrarily,
as deception unfolds its menace she is naturally forced to drive to the other
side of her human nature. She is extraordinarily alerted when she realizes that
her true love for him is taken too far to be treated as of no value. Gradually
her passion of anger, frustration and disappointment blindfold her to commit
the most deadly scene that she could never imagine otherwise. The dreadful
action takes place within a flicker of time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">It
is the total deception of Patrick that leads to this gruesome act in the house
that had no forebodings in the past. It is this inhuman character of her dear
husband that shakes her faith and totally blinds her to wildly avenge for his
deed. Understanding the magnitude of the matter, most women in her situation
would go into that degree of frenzy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The
theme of deception takes its double fold, when Maloney embarks on revenge. She
not only shocks her husband to death but the readers too, when she turns out to
be like a tigress with her strategic forays.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Once
she realizes that she is into an affair there is no going back for her. So she
wittily plans to deceive everybody involved in the matter. There is no
exception for the detectives. Why should she trust others when she knows her
most trusted person failed to hold accountability. In that regard she even
succeeds in making the detectives eat away the whole meat club which is the
testimony of her crime that would have darkened the rest of her life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">At
the end, Mrs. Maloney becomes a good deceiver as she successfully deceives many
besides her husband who deceived her at first, hence the title, ‘Lamb to the
Slaughter’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Justification of the Title:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The story ‘Lamb to the Slaughter’ is
a story that presents human characters with all its vices and virtues, with all
its positive and negative qualities blended together. The story begins with
Mary Maloney, six months pregnant and a very affectionate and devoted wife
eagerly waiting for her policeman husband Patrick Maloney. She is an exemplary
housewife maintaining her house neat and clean and willingly doing everything
for the comfort and happiness of her husband. Every day she eagerly waits for
the return of her husband. Thus we can comfortably say that she symbolises a
lamb – an innocent and gentle creature. But when she realizes that everything
was over from her husband’s side and that he has decided to leave her and break
their marriage she immediately decides, out of extreme frustration and anger’
to slaughter her husband. After killing her husband she does not feel sad, nor
does she regret her action. Rather she cleverly makes a perfect alibi to save
herself from all the consequences of her crime and she becomes successful too.
Thus the title of the story is very appropriate and suitable.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">From other point of view too, the
title appears to be very suitable. Patrick Maloney, the husband, too can be
considered to be a lamb. As people often kill a lamb without any fuss or
warning so he has been slaughtered by his wife without any warning or fuss.
Therefore the title, once again, seems to be appropriate. However we should not
forget that keeping his monstrous actions in mind – his decision to leave his
wife when she is so caring and loving and at the time when she is six months
pregnant – it is difficult to associate him with such an innocent creature as
lamb. Thus his association with lamb could be valid only for his slaughter like
a lamb.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">And lastly we should not forget that
a lamb (leg) has been used in this story as the tool, as the weapon for the
murder and hence from this point of view too, the title of the story is very
much appropriate.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">IMPORTANT CHARACTERS:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Mary Maloney:</b> Mary Maloney is the central
character or the protagonist of this story. In this story her character is the
one that presents all the aspects that may be associated with a human
character. Her character has been developed very skillfully in this story by
the author to bring out all the possible aspects of a human character. She is
gentle and a loving housewife who is six months pregnant and eagerly waiting
for her husband in the evening. She exhibits all the qualities of a caring and
loving housewife. She maintains her house neatly, she enjoys and longs for the
company of her husband, and she is willing to do everything to comfort and
please her husband. Till this point she is such a nice and lovable character.
But then the shocking decision or her husband to end their marriage changes her
completely. She appears to be an innocent victim in the hand of her husband.
But then everything changes. The victim turns out to be a clever and smart
villain. Immediately she decides to take revenge and kill her husband by
hitting him on the head with a frozen leg of a lamb. After the killing she does
not feel any sadness or regret. Rather she crafts a clever alibi, for the sake
of herself and her unborn child, to deceive the police investigation and she
accomplishes this task with clinical precision. Thus we find all the human
aspects and qualities such as love, faithfulness, anger, frustration, revenge
and deception have been blended in one character of Mary Maloney.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Patrick Maloney:</b> Patrick Maloney could very well be
described as a villain in this story who ultimately ends up to be the final
victim by being ruthlessly slaughtered. He is senior detective and husband of
Mary Maloney. More than this nothing much has been said about him in this
story. But by analysing the incidents of this story we can say that he is not
as much in love with his wife as she is with him. Moreover he appears to be
unkind and unreasonable too, otherwise he would have chosen some better time to
leave his wife and end up their marriage. His wife is six months pregnant when
he tells her about his decision to leave her. This proves him to be
irresponsible not only for his wife but also for his unborn child. However he
is not a seasoned villain as he assures her to keep on helping her financially
even after the break. This only proves that he had some sense of responsibility
left in him and whatever had happened between the two was just a case of failed
marriage. Further he also appears to have underestimated his wife. He had never
thought that his wife could be so revengeful and that she could even kill him.
Ultimately he happens to be a character that appears in the story like a
villain but ends up as a victim.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">IMPORTANT
QUESTIONS:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">‘Mary Maloney
appears to be a very faithful and affectionate wife in the beginning of the
story.’ Analyze/elaborate this statement with appropriate supporting
argument. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Or<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Describe Mary
Maloney eagerly waiting for her husband in the evening at home.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Mary
Maloney loved her husband dearly and always enjoyed his company. As usual that
day too she was eagerly waiting for her husband in her drawing room. She had
already made the necessary arrangement and had set the room neatly for his
drinks upon his return from duty. She was sewing but at the same time she was
often and anxiously looking outside expecting her husband to reach any moment.
Even though she was pregnant for six months she did not show any sign of
lethargy or laziness while setting the room for her husband. This clearly shows
that she was a loving and affectionate wife eagerly waiting for her husband to
return home after his duty as a police detective.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">What was unusual
about Patrick Maloney that day?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Patrick
Maloney appeared quite tired and exhausted when he reached home in the evening.
There was no sign of excitement to come back home and be with his loving and
caring wife once again. He took his first drink in hurry and declined his
wife’s offer for the second; rather he himself took his second drink which was
quite unusual. He was also appearing tense and unsound. He did not talk with
his wife enthusiastically. He also appeared to be in a hurry. These things were
quite unusual about him that day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">What was it that
shocked Mary Maloney and how did she react to that shocking information?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Though
nothing has been revealed clearly in the story about the shocking information
but from the happenings in the story we can very clearly guess that Patrick
Maloney had told her about his intention to leave her and end their marriage.
Initially she simply could not believe what she had heard. She wished that all
that she had heard was a nightmare and everything would be alright once she got
up. She tried to divert the talk and his attention from the topic by making so
many offers of eating something but he declined every offer and very clearly
expressed his intention to leave her and go out that evening itself. By then
she had already come back to the drawing room from the grocery with the frozen
leg of lamb with her intention to cook. At that moment he was standing near the
window and looking outside with his back towards her. Once again he expressed
his intention very clearly. She, then, reached behind him, swung the frozen leg
of lamb with her both hands and with all her might and hit him hard on the back
of his head. This powerful blow ultimately killed him instantly. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"> In what way their Thursdays used to be
different from other days?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">How did Mary create
the alibi for her? Or
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">How did Mary handle
the situation after killing her husband?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">After
realizing that she had killed her husband, Mary Maloney behaved like and
experienced and seasoned criminal in the story. She did not panic at all.
Rather she started preparing a strong alibi for her defence against the
investigating authority. Firstly she put the murder weapon – the frozen leg of
lamb – into the oven for cooking, thereby destroying the weapon used for
murder. Then she rehearsed in front of mirror to appear normal and to talk
normally. After thorough rehearsal she took her bag and went for shopping.
There she deliberately talked about her husband being tired and her intention
to cook a nice supper at home rather than going out as they used to go every
Thursday. By doing this she created a very strong testimony to prove that she
was out for shopping at the time of murder. Then coolly she came back from the
market and called the cops informing them about the murder. Upon the arrival of
the cops she told that she had gone for the shopping and when she came back she
found her husband dead in the drawing room. The shopkeeper testified her story
to the cops and in this way she was proved out of any doubt for the crime.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">“And in the other
room Mary Maloney began to giggle.” Why?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Mary
Maloney had offered the lamb chops to those policemen who were there to
investigate the murder of her husband. While eating they were discussing about
the weapon used for the murder. One of them said that the weapon used must be
around somewhere below their nose oblivious of the fact that they were all busy
eating the weapon used for murder and the weapon was really under their nose.
When Mary heard this she started giggling at the ignorance of those policemen
and also at her own shrewdness and success in hiding her crime without leaving
any chance of finding the evidence in the form of murder weapon even in distant
future. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">How does the author
use the symbol of ‘lamb’ ironically in this story?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Biblically
‘lamb’ is the symbol of peace and innocence. It is such a gentle and innocent
animal that violence cannot be attached with it. But in this story the author
has used the lamb as the weapon for murder and it becomes a symbol of violence,
murder, death, and something that is dangerous and dreadful. This is how the
author has ironically used the symbol of peace and innocence as the weapon of
murder and an instrument of death.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Further
the lamb chop offered to all the investigating policemen and their discussing
about the weapon of murder while eating the same presents a very fine example
of dramatic irony and black humour.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-style: solid none; border-top-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-top-width: 1pt; padding: 0in 0in 6pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: none; line-height: 14.6pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; padding: 0in;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
<h3 style="line-height: 27pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; page-break-after: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">·<span style="line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->What Point of View is "Lamb to the Slaughter" told from
and why is that important?<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">"Lamb to the Slaughter"
is told from the point of view of Mary Maloney<strong><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">.</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"> </span></span>This choice
to tell the story from the point of view of the murderer is an interesting
choice and one that largely defines this story. The reader knows only what she
knows. At times, such as the end of the story, this means that the reader knows
more than the other characters, especially in relation to the leg of lamb. On
the other hand, the reader is not given access to the reasoning behind
Patrick’s decision to leave. This makes it far easier for the reader to be on
Mary’s side when she makes questionable decisions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: 27pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; page-break-after: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">·<span style="line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->What influence does Mary's pregnancy have on the Story?<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 6.75pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Early in the story, the reader discovers that Mary Maloney
is pregnant. This understanding is important to the story on a number of
levels. The most basic is that it helps the reader to understand just what it
is that her husband is doing by leaving her. This makes the story more
ambiguous in morality by making the reader associate with the woman more. In
addition, it almost certainly helps keep her from being suspected. The motherly
instinct of protection is invoked by this understanding as anyone can
understand the instinct of a mother protecting her child and the fear of
execution is vital to making Mary a more positive character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: 27pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; page-break-after: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">·<span style="line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Why are the exact words Patrick says when leaving Mary left out?<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 6.75pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In the middle of the conversation between Patrick and Mary,
the narration changes for a single paragraph at the very climax of the
conversation. Patrick leads into the conversation with the hope she won’t blame
him too much. It then says that he told her, though not exactly what, and ends
with him saying that he will take care of her. This change in narration is
disconcerting and in large part that is the point. This helps the reader to
understand the disorientation and detachment of Mary.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 6.75pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In addition to this, by not telling the reader exactly what
happened, it gives far more power to the reader in the interpretation of her
later actions. By not knowing exactly what he said, it lets the reader decide
if Mary’s actions in the rest of the story are justified or not.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: 27pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; page-break-after: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">·<span style="line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Why is Patrick's profession important?<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 6.75pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Patrick is a police detective. This bit of information is
vital to the story in a number of ways. As a story in which the reader is
supposed to empathize with the murderer, having the victim be a vital and
trusted member of society creates even more conflict in the mind. In addition
to this, it plays with two basic ideas that the police will look for a killer
more vigorously if an officer is killed, but also that she knows the officers
who will investigate the crime. This means that they are more likely to be
comfortable with her. Also important is the understanding that Mary is likely
to have an escape of being arrested for the crime. As the wife of a police
detective, she has almost certainly heard many stories about crimes that he has
solved and how he has done it. Finally, this creates many other suspects that
could have committed the crime because as a police detective he has many
enemies.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: 27pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; page-break-after: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">·<span style="line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->What is the Dramatic Irony in "Lamb to the Slaughter"?<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 6.75pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">There are a couple of moments of dramatic irony in
"Lamb to the Slaughter." These are cases in which the reader
understands more than the characters. The most clear of these occurs near the
end of the story. Mary has called the police and the detectives are in her
house. As they are eating the lamb of leg, one of the officers says in relation
to the murder weapon that it is “probably right under our very noses.” This
statement is literally true though the officer who says it has no idea what he
is saying.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: 27pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; page-break-after: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">·<span style="line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->What is the Origin and Meaning of the Title "Lamb to the
Slaughter"?<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The original use of "Lamb to
the Slaughter" is found in the Bible. This phrase is located in both
Jeremiah and Isaiah<em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">.</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"> </span></i></span>It
refers to someone who goes innocently and unconcernedly into a dangerous or
life threatening situation. In the story "Lamb to the Slaughter," it
has a number of meanings though.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 6.75pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The first clear meaning is one that is a form of dark
humor. The lamb in this case is actually a murder weapon. This twists the
meaning of lamb to the slaughter into something that is not a metaphor but what
actually happens.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 6.75pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">While the first meaning is clear, the metaphorical use of
the statement is still valid and in fact there are two people who go into a
situation like lambs to the slaughter. The first of these is the murder victim
who, while knowing he is going to do something uncomfortable, has no idea what
is going to happen to him. The second though is Mary herself. It is the shock
because she doesn’t know what is coming and that shock is what drives her over
the edge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: 27pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; page-break-after: auto; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">·<span style="line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Why does Mary insist the Police eat the ‘Leg of Lamb’?<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; line-height: 13.5pt;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In the story, Mary asks the detectives to eat the leg of
lamb she had made for her husband, and even when they turn it down, she insists
that they eat this. This insistence is important beyond simply the idea that it
is the murder weapon. By having the detectives eat the lamb, they have
destroyed the evidence which will make them look stupid even if they later
understand. This will discourage them from thinking of it as a weapon. In
addition, because she ensures they have seen the murder weapon rather than
hiding it, she defies the expectations as most criminals hide the weapon.</span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 6.75pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
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Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-71747527696052806852013-07-18T18:56:00.002+06:002017-10-31T12:28:06.329+06:00Woman Unknown – Rabindranath Tagore<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiANFV3JY0pLWBiw9kaT1RcODRiuOEsX-0XaKOpqRdSlO3mmQ8zIuwpGDBbtwUzsizRSJryztJ8y3GeWGk3WJ8SnvNWkovquoNwJIaY_NqszmiRy04sywjtKAH2at3jgVOE-cG3cpWu_og/s1600/download+(3).jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiANFV3JY0pLWBiw9kaT1RcODRiuOEsX-0XaKOpqRdSlO3mmQ8zIuwpGDBbtwUzsizRSJryztJ8y3GeWGk3WJ8SnvNWkovquoNwJIaY_NqszmiRy04sywjtKAH2at3jgVOE-cG3cpWu_og/s1600/download+(3).jpg" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Sub-genre: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Traditional Realistic Fiction<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Point of View: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">First Person
Narrator<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Theme: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Standing up for
one’s right, the conflict customs and traditions pose on individual freedom<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Technical Devices Used in the Story:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Prologue: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">It is an opening
to a story that establishes the setting and gives background details, often
some earlier story that relates to the significance of the main plot, and other
miscellaneous information.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Flashback: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">It is an
interjected scene that takes the narrative back in time from the current point
to explain events that were part of the rising action. It helps readers to take
stock of the denouement and critically analyse the outcome of the story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Epilogue: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">It is a piece of
writing at the end of a work of literature or drama, usually used to bring
closure to the work. The narrator or the writer speaks directly to the reader
commenting on the present state of affairs to bring the piece to a close, or
the narration may continue normally to a closing scene.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Themes of the story</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This beautiful story written </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">somewhere in 1930s by
Rabindran</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">ath Tagore basically intends to expose some of
the ugly practices and the dark sides of otherwise so refined Indian culture
and tradition. Dowry has been a perennial and one of the ugliest practices in
the Indian culture. Thus, the story deals deeply with the horrifying impacts of
dowry system on individuals as well as society.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Besides the rising of women to uphold their
rights against all odds in a strongly male dominant society could be identified
as the next most important theme in this sotry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">And finally bringing out some of the negative
impacts of arrange marriage on individuals as well as society could also be
identified as a minor theme in this story. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Justification of the Title</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This story is a s</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">tory of an eligible bachelor</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Anupam waiting for his marriage and a girl kalyani who is supposed to
marry him. The whole story moves around these two characters and comparatively
Kalyani – the woman unknown in this story – has been presented as a stronger
character than the boy or any other. But she remains unknown throughout the
story and we do not know much about the girl or her character until we reach to
the end of the story. Thus the title ‘Woman Unknown’ is very much appropriate
for this story.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Important Characters in the
Story</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">ANUPAM</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Anupam is the central character of this
story, or in other words, he is the protagonist of this story. He is highly
educated and an eligible bachelor waiting for his marriage. He does not have
any bad habits and he is a very obedient son who cannot disobey anybody. He is
very timid and shy who is easily dominated by others. He does not even have the
guts to stand against the injustice or undesirable behaviour. Everything for
him is decided by his guardian and uncle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">KALYANI</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: She is the woman unknown in this story. We
do not know much about her till the later part of the story when the
protagonist and his mother had a chance encounter with her in the train. But
once we meet her we know that contrary to common Indian women she is very
different. She is educated, confident, and bold. These characteristics have
been exhibited by her in the train when the station master comes asking to
vacate the compartment for some Englishman. She symbolises the changing status
of woman in the Indian society. Though initially we find her father taking all
the decisions regarding her life but once she is awakened she refuses to accept
others’ decisions and she decides for herself and decides firmly. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">ANUPAM’S UNCLE: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">After the death of
Anupam’s father his uncle becomes the guardian of the family. For the family he
is very responsible and takes up all the responsibility of the family
successfully. He ensures that family property is well looked after and Anupam
gets good education. He is very meticulous and careful about the wealth of the
family and its growth. But these characteristics become too strong in him and
make him suspicious of everybody else. He suspiciousness was proved when he
demanded to check the gold given in dowry by his own goldsmith. In other words
we can also say that he was very miserly and cunning. He was expert in marriage
negotiations and ensured that Anupam got the best deal in terms of dowry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
Brief Analysis:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“Woman Unknown is the
story which unfolds the dark side of an Indian culture in marriage that weaves
around social status and its pride. Marriage, despite its sacred meaning, makes
women pay the price for it, if it doesn’t work well. In that case, if men lose,
they lose very little/less.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“Unknown Woman” is also
a history of a young Indian man and a woman who are caught and trapped in the
hell fire of so called family pride and prejudice in the name of marriage. The
arrangement and disagreement over dowry system is the thing that causes hassles
in such a marriage. It is always the bride and her family who have to bear the
unpleasant burden of marriage. This is all due to the culture which upholds man
at a higher level than woman. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The most unusual thing
happens, when the bride’s father whose vision is augmented by education takes a
U-turn in calling off the marriage ceremony. He does this as he sees the steam
of inhumanity smolder and rise from the groom’s family. It is the education and
wisdom that make him see the differences between darkness and light. If
education doesn’t permit one to see such differences then its whole purpose is
a sheer failure. If that is the case with education, then better not acquire
it. But we see that is not the case with Shambunath. He does what he wants to
do because he knows one should not become the victim for the sake of safe
guarding culture and tradition. What he realizes is that one can comfortably
give up or deny anything that embodies evil or bad nature. Foreseeing such
things as pride, greed, inhumanity and brazenness in the groom’s family,
Shambunath gives up his daughter’s marriage despite social pressures. He can’t
give his daughter’s hands to the family who places its pride on status rather
than on the principles and ethics of a good relationship. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">On the other hand,
‘Woman Unknown’ is the portrayal of a woman who struggles to break social norm
that sets a stereotypical role for her. Unlike her counterparts, she pictures
herself to be strong willed and able to implement her own wish. In that case,
we know that she has chosen not to marry but to devote her life time energy for
the welfare of girls and women in her native land. She has seen the bleak
future of women that can only be removed by education. She knows without
education darkness would perpetuate in the life of most women in her society.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kalyani also represents
modern woman whose thinking horizon is widened by the power of education.
Education is no doubt powerful in empowering personality with the power of
logic at present but it also enables one to look ahead of life and courageously
embark on the career that would help other women from falling into the trap.
Kalyani herself and numerous other Indian women have fallen prey to it since
India was born.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The story also presents
the conflict in an Indian system of joint family, where power is consolidated
in the hands of a single authoritarian male member. Apart from him no one can
take the decision. Such a system when understood properly makes Anupam realize the
thing that cripples his own right to think and act logically in life. Like
Kalyani, he too is a dynamic character empowered by the wisdom of education to
make him see the flaws that exist in his family. Thus, he breaks all barriers
of custom and culture and decides to go on his knees to confront Kalyani and
seek her hand in marriage. But will she bend?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">‘Woman Unknown’ also
makes us understand the true quality of ‘true love’. Anupam, after much trial
realizes that his love for the Woman Unknown is far from fabrication. This is
the very reason that strengthens him to give up his uncle and approach
Shambunath. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Despite his true love
for her, he never gets shattered when he understands that Kalyani wouldn’t
marry him. Instead, he too chooses to remain unmarried for the rest of his
life. He takes this ultimate decision because he has found a special place for
her in his heart. Therefore, he will not need a second place to live in. Thus,
we can attribute his love for Kalyani as the spiritual achievement which is far
superior to that of physical one.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Some Important Questions and
Answers</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Explain the term, ‘a highly eligible
bachelor’.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In the Indian context the term ‘a highly eligible bachelor’ refers to
a young and unmarried man who is good, educated, belongs to a rich family and
is free from some bad habits that a young boy can have. In this story Anupam is
one such young man who possesses all the above mentioned qualities and that’s
why he has been commended as a highly eligible bachelor.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Give a brief account of uncle’s ‘certain
fixed notions about marriage’.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Anupam’s uncle was a very shrewd calculative and cunning in money
matters. He wanted a family who was rich enough to pay him a handsome dowry but
at the same time he did not want a family richer than him either in terms of
wealth or social status as he felt that he would not be in position to dominate
the bride’s family. He believed that bride’s parents and family members should
be always humble in from of groom’s family; they should not show any pride in
their behaviour. He also felt that it was not obligatory for the groom’s family
head to be humble or show too much respect to bride’s family members. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What do you find remarkable in Sambhunath
Babu, the bride’s father?<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Sambhunath babu was a man of middle age and he was handsome enough to
stand out even in a crowd. But the most remarkable fact about him is that he
was a man of few words but strong conviction. He was also a man of self dignity
and that’s why he could not bear the insult meted by Anupam’s uncle. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="4" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Describe uncle’s shrewdness in the whole
affair.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">By nature uncle was very shrewd and cunning. He was a miser and had no
trust on anybody else. He proved his shrewdness during the negotiation and
finalizing the dowry. He made everything clear to the bride’s father – the
amount in cash, the quantity of gold and etc. Not only this, he even took his
own goldsmith to confirm the purity of gold before the actual marriage ceremony
took place.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="5" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Why did Sambhunath babu send the
bridegroom back without marriage?<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Just before the marriage Anupam’s uncle demanded Sambhunath babu to
bring all the jewellery for checking its purity. Sambhunath said it was not
required as his daughter had put on all the jewelleries. But uncle did not
agree as he did not want to take any chance. Moreover he was already
apprehensive observing the miserliness of Sambhunath in the arrangement made
for the marriage party. Sambhunath took it as an insult and a breach of trust.
He was hurt very badly and hence he decided not to give the hands of his
daughter to a family who did not trust him and send the marriage party without
any marriage.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="6" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Give a brief account of the reactions of
Anupam’s family after they came back without marriage.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Anupam’s family and especially his uncle was very furious about
Sambhunath’s behaviour. They had not thought that a bride’s parent can break
off the marriage. His uncle even thought of dragging them to court for
defamation. Even Anupam was very angry and he thought that one day the bride’s
father would come begging for their forgiveness and would request them once
again to marry his daughter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="7" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Why did Anupam’s mother feel uneasy about
the woman unknown in the train?<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The girl’s boldness and frankness, according to mother’s point of
view, was out of accepted proportion according to Indian culture. Moreover her
buying chana and eating without any hesitation in front of them all was
unexpected from a girl. Owing to these facts the mother felt quite uneasy about
the girl.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="8" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">‘The story ‘Woman Unknown’ depicts the
status of woman in the Indian society and their struggle to rise and
assert their presence in a more dominating way’. Explain.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The whole story categorically reveals the different facets of Indian
culture and tradition. It basically deals with the culture of traditional
marriage in the Indian society. It clearly reveals how the arrange marriage in
India materialise and what are the problems that may arise in the process. It
also highlights the vice of dowry and its consequences in the Indian society.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Traditionally the women’s position used to be non-significant in the
whole process of marriage. In this story too Kalyani, the main protagonist, does
not have any say in her marriage. But once the marriage is broken she shows her
independence by taking her own decision to devote her life for the service of
motherland and educate young women. Women’s independence and resurrection has
been asserted more emphatically when she refuses Anupam’s proposal of marriage
at the end of the story despite her father’s willingness. By rejecting Anupam’s
marriage proposal she is symbolically asserting that Indian women would no more
be ruled by the male and they would no more submit themselves to </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">the whims and dominance of
male dominated society</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">.</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com16tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-68777000018569950522013-07-18T18:54:00.002+06:002015-04-17T15:15:49.236+06:00The Secret Life of Walter Mitty -James Thurber.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
Secret Life of Walter Mitty is a humour which employs the use of ‘Stories
within a Story’ style in a mix of fantasy and realistic fiction. The story
introduces Walter Mitty, an average American Male, who escapes his mundane life
by resorting to elaborate fantasies. Anyone who has ever day dreamed can relate
to Walter. Indeed, the name Walter Mitty has become synonymous with a person
who enriches his private life with daydreams while working or listening to
everyday conversations. The story focuses on escapism from mundane life into
the world of fantasies triggered by stimuli. The story portrays stereotypical
male and female roles for e.g. the timid husband, the hero, and the over –
bearing wife.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Conflicts
in the Story:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Internal</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Mitty in the real world versus Mitty in
his fantasy world.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">External</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mitty
versus his wife<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mitty
versus society especially his struggle to follow conventional social norms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Technique
Used: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Stories
within a story<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Advantages:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 38.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Builds suspense.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 38.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Provides variety
to the readers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 38.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Makes the story
interesting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 38.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Shows a change
in character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Disadvantages:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Creates
confusion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Readers
may lose track of the story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Spoils
the flow and enjoyment of the story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
story is told in <b>third person narrative.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Writing
in third person is the most common way of telling a story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Third
person is the workaday point of view, the one that calls the least attention to
itself. This is an advantage: it keeps the reader focused on the story more.
Stories are carried by a Third Person<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">View
point than by any other, and it's usually the best option to look at first,
before considering other techniques.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
story tells what <b>"he", "she," </b>or <b>"it" </b>does.
The third-person narrator's perspective can be <b><i>limited </i></b>(telling
the story from one character's viewpoint) or <b><i>omniscient </i></b>(where
the narrator knows everything<b><i> </i></b>about all of the characters).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Theme:
</span></b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Escapism from a mundane life. Portrays
the stereotypical male and female roles.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
five day dreams of Mitty.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The pilot of a US Navy hydroplane – Commander Mitty:
Walter Mitty is driving too fast so he thinks he is a Naval Commander. Mrs.
Mitty brings him back to reality. The noise (pocketa- - -) is repeated in most
of his day dreams. Mrs. Mitty is characterized mostly through her interaction with
Walter and his jolting back to reality. She is going to the beauty parlour and
Walter is going to get overshoes. Doctor Renshaw is Walter’s doctor. Mrs. Mitty
wants him to go and have a checkup as he is acting strangely. Walter drives around
a while and passes a hospital. Then he begins to fantasize that he is fixing a
machine in the hospital - a broken piston with a fountain pen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A surgeon- He is
a famous doctor. The parking lot attendant jolts him back to reality. The attendant
makes fun of him and embarrasses him. He said that next time he would wear his
right arm in a sling and sure he does in his third fantasy. Then he leaves to
get the overshoes. He had forgotten the item that Mrs. Mitty had wanted him to
get.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">An assassin: on
the street he hears the newsboy shouting about Waterbury trial; and fantasizes
that is a famous assassin on trial for murder. Finally during the fantasy he
remembers the puppy biscuits and said it loud. A woman passing on the street
laughed at him because he was talking to himself. He goes in the A & P and
buys the biscuits whose name he had forgotten. All he remembered was the label ‘Puppies
bark for it’ on the box. His wife would be finished in 15 minutes, so he goes
to the hotel where he meets her and begins to read an ‘Old copy of Liberty’
probably published during World War II.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A Royal Air Force pilot – RAF Captain Mitty: He
dreams that he is a courageous pilot in the war. His dream is shattered by the
arrival of his wife who begins to nag him about hiding from her and not putting
his over shoes. She thinks he is ill because he is acting strange. She is going
to take his temperature when he gets home. She has forgotten something and
darts off for the drug store to get it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Fearless Mitty – Person fearlessly facing the firing
squad: Walter’s final dream is that of facing the firing squad mysterious as to
the end without handkerchief and smoking a cigarette.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Stimuli:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The powering up of the “Navy hydroplane” in the
opening scene is followed by Mrs. Mitty’s complaint that Mitty is driving too
fast, which suggests that his speedy driving led to the first day dream.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mitty’s is a brilliant surgeon after taking off and
putting on his gloves as a surgeon puts his surgical gloves and drives past the
hospital.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The court room drama “perhaps this will refresh your
memory” which begins the third fantasy, follows Mitty’s attempt to remember
what his wife told him to buy and also a newspaper boy using news of Waterbury
Trial to sell his newspapers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mitty’s
romanticized version of British pilots in the early days of World War II is
inspired from his looking at an old copy “liberty”, which contains images of a
war in which The United States was not yet involved at the time of the story’s
publication.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The closing firing squad scene comes when Mitty is
standing against the wall.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Summary
of the story:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">As
“The Secret Life of Walter Mitty” begins, a military officer orders an airplane
crew to proceed with a flight through a dangerous storm. The crew members are
scared but are buoyed by their commander’s confidence, and they express their
faith in him. Suddenly, the setting switches to an ordinary highway, where
Walter Mitty and his wife are driving into a city to run errands. The scene on
the airplane is revealed to be one of Mitty’s many fantasies.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mitty’s
wife observes that he seems tense, and when he drops her off in front of a hair
styling salon, she reminds him to go buy overshoes and advises him to put on
his gloves. He drives away toward a parking lot and loses himself in another
fantasy. In this daydream he is a brilliant doctor, called upon to perform an
operation on a prominent banker. His thoughts are interrupted by the attendant
at the parking lot, where Mitty is trying to enter through the exit lane. He
has trouble backing out to get into the proper lane, and the attendant has to
take the wheel. Mitty walks away, resentful of the attendant’s skill and self-assurance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Next,
Mitty finds a shoe store and buys overshoes. He is trying to remember what else
his wife wanted him to buy when he hears a newsboy shouting about a trial,
which sends Mitty into another daydream. Mitty is on the witness stand in a
courtroom. He identifies a gun as his own and reveals that he is a skillful
marksman. His testimony causes a disturbance in the courtroom. An attractive
young woman falls into his arms; the district attorney strikes her and Mitty punches
him. This time Mitty brings himself out of his reverie by remembering what he
was supposed to buy. “Puppy biscuit,” he says aloud, leading a woman on the
street to laugh and tell her friend, “That man said ‘Puppy biscuit’ to
himself.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mitty
then goes to a grocery store for the dog biscuits and makes his way to the
hotel lobby where he has arranged to meet his wife. He sits in a chair and
picks up a magazine that carries a story about airborne warfare. He begins to
daydream again, seeing himself as a heroic bomber pilot about to go on a dangerous
mission. He is brave and lighthearted as he prepares to risk his life. He
returns to the real world when his wife claps him on the shoulder. She is full
of questions, and he explains to her that he was ‘thinking’. “Does it ever
occur to you that I am sometimes thinking?” he says.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">She
replies that she plans to take his temperature when they get home. They leave
the hotel and walk toward the parking lot. She darts into a drugstore for one
last purchase, and Mitty remains on the street as it begins to rain. He lights
a cigarette and imagines himself smoking it in front of a firing squad. He tosses
the cigarette away and faces the guns courageously — “Walter Mitty the
Undefeated, inscrutable to the last.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">1.
What is the setting in <i>The Secret Life of Walter Mitty</i>?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">a.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Throughout most
of the story, Mitty is driving around town with his wife, then he drops her off
at the hairdresser while he runs some errands. He first gets scolded at by his
wife for driving too fast and then gets yelled by another driver while stalling
at a green light. He has trouble parking, and then forgets just what it was he
was supposed to pick up at the grocer's while his wife gets her hair
"done." In his daydreams, however, Mitty finds himself dominating
difficult situations in more exotic settings - in an icebreaker up near the
pole, in an emergency surgical unit, in a courtroom, and finally before a
firing squad. The contrast between Mitty's real life and that of his
imagination is of course the humour of the story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">b.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> There is a
contrast of settings between the boring humdrum suburban existence which Mitty
has and his fantastical hero exploits. In reality Mitty is driving his wife to
town, then waiting around for her whilst completing the menial tasks he has
been set to do:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">''Remember
to get those overshoes while I'm having my hair done,"<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
second setting is as wide as Mitty's imagination which ranges from the depths
of a hurricane to the warring skies; the tense operation theatre and the
dramatic courtroom. One of the most engaging aspects of the story is
facilitated by this distinction in settings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.
What type of character is Walter Mitty?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Walter
Mitty, the main character in "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty," is a
daydreamer. He spends a good deal of his time imagining that he is someone
else. His daydreams all have him as a successful, courageous, heroic
individual, who is called in to save the day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">"He
imagines himself the hero of his fantasies as a navy pilot commander, doctor,
sharpshooter, bomber pilot, and noble victim of a firing squad. Mitty is
married to a woman who treats him more like a child than a husband. This is due
to his immature tendency to escape into fantasies rather than live in the real
world."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
real life, Walter Mitty is a bumbling fool who would rather spend his energy
dreaming of things he isn't, rather than make a real change in his life. Throughout
the story, Walter Mitty changes very little, the only thing that changes are
his daydreams. In his final daydream, he imagines himself facing a firing
squad. Of course this is another expression of his exceptional courage and
bravery. But I always wondered if this daydream didn't mean something more,
like maybe he had a secret desire for death to escape his boring, controlled
existence under the constant nagging of his wife.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This
thought gives some credibility to Mrs. Mitty's concern for Walter Mitty's
health. He clearly suffers from some mental disorder in my view.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">3.
Compare and contrast Walter Mitty in real life with Mitty in his daydream.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
Walter Mitty, the author James Thurber has created an Everyman. Henpecked by
his wife and beaten down by life, Mitty is a middle-aged man trying to navigate
the challenges of ordinary life, with little success. Nagged constantly by his
wife and mocked by others he encounters in the course of his mundane existence,
Mitty retreats into a fantasy world of extraordinary events.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
his imagination, Mitty becomes a daring combat pilot, a uniquely skilled
surgeon called in to consult on a puzzling medical case, and a brilliant lawyer
whose eloquence saves the day in a tense courtroom drama. In all of these
fantasies, Mitty is the hero, a sharp contrast to the little failures of his
real life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Indeed,
it is exactly that contrast that gives Mitty relief from the humiliation of his
day-to-day existence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">4.
In the ''Secret Life of Walter Mitty'', in what ways is Mr. Mitty's final
daydream a comment on his fate of real life?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
Walter Mitty's final daydream, he imagines that he is about to be put to death
by a firing squad. In one sense, this can be seen as an indication that Mitty's
fate is to lose his "battle" with his boring, mundane life. He will
continue to be dragged on boring shopping excursions by his wife, who will continue
to scold him for his forgetfulness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mitty's
attitude toward the firing squad, however, hints at a different aspect of his
fate. Mitty faces the firing squad bravely, refusing to cover his eyes with a
handkerchief; he is, at his last moment, "erect and motionless, proud and
disdainful." This hints that he will triumph over his boring life, in a
sense: he will continue to live an exciting life in his daydreams.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
this sense, Walter Mitty can be seen as an example of an <i>existentialist </i>hero.
Existentialism is a philosophy that looks at
people as being lonely, isolated and overpowered by an uncaring world; the most
a person can do is to choose a path that is true to his or her own character
and not give in to what someone else has chosen for them (</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.8400001525879px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">a philosophy that emphasizes individual existence, freedom and choice. It is the view that humans define their own meaning in life, and try to make rational decisions despite existing in an irrational universe</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.8400001525879px; text-align: left;">.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">) Walter Mitty, in his
mild little way, chooses his own path and refuses to give in to the demands of
his wife or society at large.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty," how
do the tasks of Mitty's daily life compare to those of his fantasy life?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
his daily life, Walter Mitty is a bored, hen-pecked husband who has little
control about what goes on around him. He runs errands for his wife and then
listens to her complaints each and every day. In his fantasy world, he is able
to tune out his wife and daydream about exciting activities which he will never
be able to accomplish. Whenever things begin to become too stressful, Walter
switches to fantasy mode.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
the end, even a firing squad seems to be preferential to his daily grind.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What is the mood in "The Secret Life of Walter
Mitty"?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
mood of a story is also called its tone, the feeling it produces in the reader.
The tone of a story is determined by the author's attitude toward the
characters and their situation. Does the author take them very seriously, for
example, or does the author find humor in them? The tone in Thurber's story is one
of gentle humor. Walter Mitty loses himself in the most thrilling, dramatic
adventures, and the humor in the story is created by the contrast between
Mitty's mental fantasies and his real life daily activities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
each of his daydreams, Mitty is the hero--brave, daring, powerful, and the
center of everyone's attention. This emphasizes how meek and powerless he
really is, pushed around by an overbearing wife.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This
may make Mitty seem like a sad little man, but Thurber does not emphasize this
element in the story. The humorous tone of the story is continued in its
conclusion. In Mitty's last fantasy; he stands bravely before a firing squad,
scorning death itself, until his wife's voice snaps him back again. The subtle
(and funny) suggestion is that for Walter Mitty, facing a firing squad is
preferable to dealing with Mrs. Mitty.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXCITgf2OYd5RA1nP3XyzBi7Vuxh_bm8rAallvpH0pMaUhkF655Xws_81H78JJwFBnhOBPDcc-M28AV8tUOBZ5qMzQ1Id0hJlV8-UdGGJn2NBtJzJ03pdX89xmZXTdYpq-EUPwr173nwk/s1600/images.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXCITgf2OYd5RA1nP3XyzBi7Vuxh_bm8rAallvpH0pMaUhkF655Xws_81H78JJwFBnhOBPDcc-M28AV8tUOBZ5qMzQ1Id0hJlV8-UdGGJn2NBtJzJ03pdX89xmZXTdYpq-EUPwr173nwk/s1600/images.jpg" /></a></div>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What happened in the doctor fantasy? Who wakes Mitty
up to reality? What was the cause and effect from this day dream?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
this daydream, Walter Mitty is a very famous doctor. (The daydream is triggered
when he drives by a hospital.) He is helping a couple of other famous doctors
who are doing some sort of surgery on a very important patient (a friend of
President Roosevelt). Not only is Mitty asked to help, he is also called on to
save the day by fixing a machine that is breaking down (it gives out
anesthetic).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">He
is woken up from the daydream by the attendant at the parking lot. Mitty has
been driving his car into the lot by the exit only lane.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">8.
Point of view: Through whose eyes do you obtain the view of Mrs. Mitty when it
states that she wanted Mr. Mitty to be waiting at the hotel for her?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
story is written in the third person throughout, so we are observing her
desires through the narrator. We are told:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">She
didn't like to get to the hotel first, she would want him to be there waiting
for her as usual.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
wish she has to arrive after him and have him waiting indicates that she needs
to be in control and that she likes her husband to be at her beck and call; in
fact she expects it. She is frustrated when he is there before her, but is
obviously not focused on her arrival:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">"I've
been looking all over this hotel for you," said Mrs. Mitty. "Why do
you have to hide in this old chair? How did you expect me to find you?"<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Thurber
presents her questioning as interrogation to reflect the militaristic settings
in which Mitty projects himself. Also, we are given an insight into her
nagging, accusatory nature and the way she cruelly belittles her husband:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">She
looked at him. "I'm going to take your temperature when I get you
home," she said.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">9.
What is the structure of the story "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty"
by James Thurber?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This
story vacillates between the everyday humdrum life of Water Mitty, the
hen-pecked husband stereotype, and the extravagant adventures he lives in his
daydreams. Mitty flits in and out of reality, his daydreams concocted by a
stream of consciousness association triggered by the sputtering of his car's
exhaust pipe, a pair of gloves, and finally a freshly lit cigarette. In such a
way this docile "hubby" gets to be the captain of an icebreaker, a
famous surgeon, a defendent in a murder trial and finally a fighter pilot taken
captive distaining a firing squad. Mitty's imagination is his "second
life," which nurtures his deflated ego and helps him escape the
insufferable mediocrity of his existence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">If
you do a graph of the plot line of this story, it would look very much like a
cardiograph printout, with the steady horizontal line of Mitty's real life
intermittently broken by the highs and lows of his "virtual" existence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">10.
What is the irony in this story?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">There’s
a lot of irony in the story. Irony is traditionally defined in modern
literature as "the technique of indicating an intention or attitude
opposed to what is actually stated." Just about every fantasy Walter Mitty
has is irony. His attitude in the fantasy is one of decisiveness while in real
life he allows his wife to order him around. In the fantasies he intentionally
makes himself the center of attention whether as the captain or on the witness
stand, and yet in real life he wants to avoid attention, and when others do pay
attention to him, like the person on the street who laughed about him saying
"puppy biscuits", it's for ridicule. It's ironic that a man who wants
to be so strong and commanding (and who in his fantasies *sees* himself as
strong and commanding) is such a wimp.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">It
isn't especially ironic that poor Walter would escape momentarily from his dull
life and nagging wife in daydreams. In fact, we might expect him to do
something to relieve his misery. It is ironic; however, that mousy Mr. Mitty
can weave such colorful and incredibly detailed romantic adventures. For a man
who shows no signs of creativity in his real life, the richness of his
imagination is remarkable. It is ironic (situational irony) that in order to
engage his talents and enjoy his life, Mitty has to stop living it from time to
time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Another
type of irony found in the story is dramatic irony. We understand much more
about her husband's activities than does Mrs. Mitty. For example, in the
beginning of the story, Mrs. Mitty demands to know why Walter is driving so
fast. This is amusing because we know Commander Mitty is driving fast because
he is powering a navy hydroplane through stormy winter seas trying to escape an
impending hurricane!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">11.
What symbols are used by the author in The Secret Life of Walter Mitty?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">There
seems to be two questions here. The key symbols I would see as the gloves and
the sling.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mitty
is told he should be wearing his driving gloves and dutifully dons them at her
acidic request. However, he removes them once she leaves the car- asserting his
own masculinity and ability to choose. Sadly he 'hastily' pulls them back on
after being reprimanded by a policeman for driving too slowly.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">However,
he 'slowly' removes them again when he becomes Dr Mitty, the eminent surgeon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
gloves represent his power and the fluctuations in his control. Similarly his
fantasies around the sling serve a comparable purpose.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mitty's
visions are neither flash forward nor flash back: they appear to be a parallel
reality where Mitty has all of the qualities he does not possess in real life.
In his imagination he is respected, decisive, admired and powerful. In reality
he is henpecked, bumbling and incompetent.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">12.
What is the exposition in "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty"?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Exposition
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">is
simply the mode of writing to provide information. It is the text of the story
that explains the <b>plot</b>. In "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty,"
the story opens with a description of a military flight in a storm. The episode
is revealed to be a daydream that Walter enjoys while driving his wife to town.
The reader quickly figures out that Walter is fantasizing about leading a more
exciting life because of the narrative device of interspersing descriptions of
the fantasies with the mundane reality of Walter's life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">13.
Examine the external conflict from the story concerning Mr. Walter Mitty and
Mrs. Mitty.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
external conflict between Walter Mitty and Mrs. Mitty comes from the fact that
she is domineering and controlling, and he is too timid to say anything. He
daydreams to escape being yelled at by Mrs. Mitty, and Mrs. Mitty yells at him
because he is often too distracted to pay attention to real life. Because Mitty
is incapable of being the hero in real life, he plays the hero in his
fantasies. In the end, we see that there can be no real conclusion to the
conflict. Mitty continues to retreat to his imagination, and Mrs. Mitty
continues to scold him for doing so.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">14.
In "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty" what is the main conflict? Why?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
main conflict is found in Mitty's relationship with his wife. She hovers, nags,
controls, and directs every aspect of his daily life; he resents it. We can
interpret this as the main conflict for several reasons.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">First
of all, this is the only continuing conflict in the story and the only one that
is rooted in reality. It is introduced quickly into the story, and it is the
conflict to which the story returns at the end. Mitty's conflict with his wife
provides the frame of the story, with his various, unrelated fantasies making
up the rest.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Even
his daydreams, however, support the idea that his conflict with Mrs. Mitty is
the major problem. Mitty fantasizes in order to escape his life--and his
wife--but even in his fantasies; parts of his real life intrude. He can't get
away completely. Mitty's final fantasy in the story is both humorous and
ironic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">When
he is back in his wife's company, she sends him outside to wait for her. As he does
what he is told, standing in the rain waiting, he daydreams again, this time
about standing in front of a firing squad. This particular fantasy makes
Mitty's conflict with his wife very clear; facing a firing squad is preferable
to dealing with Mrs. Mitty.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">15.
Explain the conscious and subconscious mental wanderings of the main character
in "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">There
could be many answers to this question so this is only my personal 'take' on
the story. I see it as an early reaction to the pressures of modern living,
with all its rush, pressure and stress. Walter Mitty copes with stressful
reality by developing a series of fantasy worlds that allow him to retreat from
it, albeit for only short periods. It's probably something that we all do, not
in quite the same way perhaps, but our daydreams and waking fantasies may well
be psychological mechanisms to help us get through 'real' world.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">16.
What type of story is "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty”, explain.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">James
Thurber's most famous story, "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty," is a
fantasy escape story. The main character, Walter Mitty, escapes from his normal
life in which he is hen-pecked and stressed out by his inadequacies to fantasy
situations in which everyone loves him, expresses their faith in him, and where
he is the hero. This is Walter's way of surviving and buoying his character and
spirit in order to get through life with his very critical and nagging wife.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Although
this story is entertaining and funny, it is also a cautionary tale. In
"The Secret Life of Walter Mitty," the author is giving the reader a
chance to see a life wasted on daydreaming. In fact, Walter Mitty daydreams so
much, that he is emotionally absent from his present-moment living.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">"He
is constantly being upbraided by policemen, parking lot attendants, and his
wife for his erratic, distracted behavior."<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Perhaps,
if Walter Mitty stopped daydreaming, he could actually become a doctor, navy
pilot or sharpshooter. The author is suggesting that Mitty is lazy and
disconnected from real life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Although
this is a funny story, especially when you factor in the nagging wife, Walter
Mitty is a sorry fellow who has let life pass him by. His condition, constant
daydreaming, qualifies him for psychiatric analysis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">"Thurber
suggests that this ordinary man who hates the reality of middle-class life and
his own shortcomings prefer to live in his imagination." Walter Mitty is
headed for a breakdown, and, will end up in a mental hospital at some point in
his disappointed life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">17.
What are the characteristics of ‘The Secret Life of Walter Mitty’?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
Secret Life of Walter Mitty tells the story of a man who is always daydreaming
about being someone else. Any time in his ordinary life, and at any moment, he
can be transported by one of his waking dreams, forgetting about what he is
doing in his real life, such as driving his car, or shopping for items his wife
told him to buy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Walter
Mitty is constantly pulled into a fantasy life where he is a successful and
sought after hero. He dreams he is a fighter pilot, a successful and skilled
surgeon or about to be shot by a firing squad, all very exciting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
problem with Walter Mitty is that he spends way too much time in his
imagination and not enough time in his real life. In real life Walter Mitty is
very inept, incapable of taking care of his own life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Word
Meanings:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A. & P</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">. : Name of a chain of grocery stores.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Archies</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Artillery
shells<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Aupres de Ma
Blonde</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:
A song popular among the soldiers in World War I<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Cannonading</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Continuous
firing of cannons<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Carburundum</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: A trademark abrasive
chemical – not something Mitty would actually need<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Cur</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: An ill- bred
dog (Also dog)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Obstreosis of
the ductal tract</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:
Meaningless medical jargon invented by Mitty.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Streptothricosis</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: A sore on the
skin; medical jargon misused by Mitty.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-18638654698935376482013-06-11T20:23:00.003+06:002021-06-28T12:44:32.875+06:00Nature of Language: Its nature and Features....<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #990000; font-size: large;">Nature of Language</span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span>Every creature strives to
communicate with its own kind. One of the ways in which this need is fulfilled
is by expressing thoughts in the medium of language. Language is the bridge
between individuals that tells them they are needed, that they are not alone.
Language thus gives us self-expression and by extension, identity. Language is
a systematic and conventional means of human communication by way to vocal
sounds. Language is a system
governed by rules. All languages have common set of systems, like the
principles, rules, features and processes that are universal. The scientific
study of language is called <b>Linguistics.</b></span><br />
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p style="background-color: white;"><br /></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">All languages, including of course, English, are systems,
or, more precisely, series of inter related systems governed by rules. In other
words, languages are highly structured; they consist of patterns that recur in
various combinations and rules that apply to produce these patterns.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><br /></span>
<span>The inter-related systems of a language include<b> Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Lexicon,
and Semantics.<o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Languages that have a written representation
(and not all languages do) </b>also
have a system of graphics. All languages have the same set of systems (with the
possible exception of graphics) but the components of the systems and the inter
relationship among the system differ from language to language.</span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Phonology</b> is the sounds of a language and the study of
these sounds.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Morphology</b> Is the arrangement and relationship of the
smallest meaningful units in a language these minimum units of meaning are
called morphemes. It is often useful to distinguish between free and bound
morphemes<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">Free morphemes can be used alone as independent words for example, take,
for, each etc<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">Bound morphemes form words only when attached to at least one other
morphemes; re, dis ,un, -ing, –ful and
–tion are all bound morphemes.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">The most familiar bound morphemes are affixes (that is, prefixes and
suffixes) but even bases (Forms to which affixes are attached) can be bound. An
example of a bound base is the –cept of words as except, accept, deceptive, and
reception; although -cept derives from an independent Latin verb capere ‘to
take’, it appears only as a bound morpheme in English.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Syntax</b> is the arrangement of words in to phrases,
clauses, and sentences, loosely speaking, it is word order. A simple example
like the difference between I had stolen my car and I had my car stolen
illustrates how crucial syntax is in English. English speakers have more option with respect to syntax than they
do with respect to phonology or morphology. But we have the option of saying
either I like dogs. Or dogs I like. This
freedom is limited, however; they cannot say like dogs I. Or Like I dogs.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>The Lexicon</b> of a language is the list of all the
Morphemes in the language. In linguistic terminology, a lexicon differs from
vocabulary or a dictionary of a language in that it includes not only
independent words but also morphemes that do not appear as independent words,
including affixes such as-ed, -s, mis, and poly- and bound forms like the
–clude of include, exclude, and preclude, which appear only as part of words
and never as independent words. One of the most remarkable features of English
today is the great size and diversity of origin of its Lexicon.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><br /></span>
</span><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Semantics</b> is the study of meanings or all the meanings
expressed by a language. It is the relationship between language and the real
world, between the sounds we make and what we are talking about like all other
aspects of language, meanings change overtime.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><br /></b>
<b>Functions of language:<o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">Gives self-expression and identity. It tells our
listeners or readers about ourselves – in particular about our regional
origins, social background, and level of education, age, sex, and
personality.</span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">It gives shape to thoughts and emotions, and
communicates these to intended audience.</span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">It is the basic element with which the history of the
world has been recorded.</span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">it is a time capsule that allows us to view and
re-view any moment in the past of literate man.(refer to people, events
etc in the world)</span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">It is a repository of information.</span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">To express judgments, opinions, assertion etc. it is
used to say if a statement is true or false.</span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">To maintain social rapport between people; to build
and maintain relationship.</span></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white;">One of the most basic human urges
is to communicate.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">Language: a means of
communication</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white;">A communication model:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #660000;"><span style="background-color: white;">Encoding >> Transmission
>> Reception >> Decoding.</span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">Communication happens when the
decoder receives, decodes and understands the message of the encoder. The
encoder and the decoder are called interlocuters.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">Language is not only a human
phenomenon. Animals cry, hoot, bleat, coo, dance, sing…. to communicate their
message.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">Human language is a more complex
and sophisticated form of communication. No animal communication matches or
even remotely comes close to the variety, complexity and creativity of human
language.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">Sounds are the basic units of
language. But not sounds in themselves or in a jumble. Sounds have to be
meaningful. They acquire meaning when they organize themselves in an
intelligible combinations and forms.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #073763;"><b><span style="background-color: white;">Sounds >> forms >>
meaning gives us an intelligible, sensible structure to understand the world
around us.</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">These three components, in fact,
represent the three fundamental dimensions of the organization as well as the
three levels of analysis of language: phonological, syntactic, and semantic.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-text-indent-alt: -9.0pt; tab-stops: list .3in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><b><span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span>i.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Phonological
level:</b> sounds and their organization.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-text-indent-alt: -9.0pt; tab-stops: list .3in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: bold;">
</span><b>ii.</b><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: bold;"> </span><!--[endif]--><b>Syntactic
level: </b>forms and their organization.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-text-indent-alt: -9.0pt; tab-stops: list .3in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><b><span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span>iii.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Semantic
level:</b> meaning as manifested in the phonological and syntactic levels.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white;">Human Language Features:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span>1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]--><b>Language is a system:</b> it is a system.
Language is not a collection of sounds and forms at random, but a highly
organized system in which each unit has its place and value. Each sound is
related to other sounds, each word is related to other words to make meaning. Arbitrariness:
Human language is an arbitrary phenomenon. There is no natural connection or
relationship between a word and its meaning. The signifier and the signified
are brought together arbitrarily. E. g. why a table is called a ‘table’? tables
do not make noises similar to the word(hence no connection). We cannot tell
from the sound structure which behind it.</span><br />
<span><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span>2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]--><b>Open-ended system:</b> The sounds, words
and sentences in a language may be finite or limited, but the combinations and
constructions are infinite or unlimited. This creative or productive potential
of the language enables its users to manipulate and make infinite varieties of
constructions to express himself or herself. So humans have the ability to say
things that have never been said before, including the possibility to express
invented things or lies.</span><br />
<span><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span>3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]--><b>Duality of structures:</b> Human language
is organised at two levels or layers simultaneously: at the level of individual
sounds like n, p, b, k, a …but none of these individual, separate sounds have
any meaning in themselves. Their meaning comes from the meaningful combinations
to produce words. Although our capacity to produce new sounds (letters) is
limited, we frequently coin new words. Hence, our capacity to produce
vocabulary is unlimited.</span><br />
<span><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span>4.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]--><b>Displacement:</b> Human language can be
used to refer to any dimension of space and time. We can use language to refer
to the past, the present and the future. It can also be used to refer to any
place here or elsewhere. In neither case does the language user have to move
from his or her place to refer to time or place. E. g.: A gorilla cannot tell
his friends about his parents, adventures, and experiences of the past. It
lacks the freedom to apply its knowledge to a new context.(dance of honey bee
indicates rich deposits of foods to other bees. They frequently repeat the same
pattern in dance whereas humans are able to invent even new context)</span><br />
<span><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span>5.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]--><b>Meta-linguistic system:</b> Human language
can be used to talk about itself, its features, functions, varieties and levels
of sophistications.</span><br />
<span><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span>6.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]--><b>Cultural Transmission:</b> Human beings may
be born with innate predispositions to acquire language, but they are not born
with the ability to produce utterances in a specific language. Language is not
genetically transmitted. It is culturally transmitted and has to be consciously
learned. (The process whereby language is passed down from generation to
generation is described as cultural transmission)</span><br />
<span><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span>7.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]--><b>Language is an individual and social
phenomenon:</b> Language serves to expressing individual needs and urges; it
brings an individual into relationship with the external world.</span><br />
<span><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span>8.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]--><b>Human language is species-specific and
species-uniform:</b> Language is specific to the human of the species and all
human beings are capable of learning the language in which they are born.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><br /></b>
<b>Language Acquisition:</b></span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
</span><br />
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the
capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use
words and sentences to communicate. Language acquisition is one of the
quintessential human traits, because non-humans do not communicate by using
language. Language acquisition usually refers to first-language acquisition,
which studies infants' acquisition of their native language. This is
distinguished from second-language acquisition, which deals with the acquisition
(in both children and adults) of additional languages.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><br /></span>
<span>The capacity to successfully use
language requires one to acquire a range of tools including phonology,
morphology, syntax, semantics, and an extensive vocabulary. Language can be
vocalized as in speech or manual as in sign. The human language capacity is
represented in the brain. Even though the human language capacity is finite,
one can say and understand an infinite number of sentences, which is based on a
syntactic principle called recursion. Evidence suggests that every individual
has three recursive mechanisms that allow sentences to go indeterminately.
These three mechanisms are: relativization, complementation and coordination. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><br /></span>
<span>The capacity to acquire and use
language is a key aspect that distinguishes humans from other beings. Although
it is difficult to pin down what aspects of language are uniquely human, there
are a few design features that can be found in all known forms of human
language, but that are missing from forms of animal communication. For example,
many animals are able to communicate with each other by signaling to the things
around them, but this kind of communication lacks the arbitrariness of human
vernaculars (in that there is nothing about the sound of the word
"dog" that would hint at its meaning). Other forms of animal
communication may utilize arbitrary sounds, but are unable to combine those
sounds in different ways to create completely novel messages that can then be
automatically understood by another. Charles F. Hockett called this design
feature of human language "productivity". It is crucial to the
understanding of human language acquisition that we are not limited to a finite
set of words, but, rather, must be able to understand and utilize a complex
system that allows for an infinite number of possible messages. So, while many
forms of animal communication exist, they differ from human languages in that
they have a limited range of vocabulary tokens, and the vocabulary items are
not combined syntactically to create phrases. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><br /></span>
<span>A major debate in understanding
language acquisition is how these capacities are picked up by infants from the
linguistic input. Input in the linguistic context is defined as "All
words, contexts, and other forms of language to which a learner is exposed,
relative to acquired proficiency in first or second languages". Nativists
such as Noam Chomsky have focused on the hugely complex nature of human
grammars, the finiteness and ambiguity of the input that children receive, and
the relatively limited cognitive abilities of an infant. From these
characteristics they conclude that the process of language acquisition in
infants must be tightly constrained and guided by the biologically given
characteristics of the human brain. Otherwise, they argue, it is extremely
difficult to explain how children, within the first five years of life,
routinely master the complex, largely tacit grammatical rules of their native
language. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><br /></span>
<span>Other scholars, however, have
resisted the possibility that infants' routine success at acquiring the grammar
of their native language requires anything more than the forms of learning seen
with other cognitive skills, including such mundane motor skills as learning to
ride a bike. In particular, there has been resistance to the possibility that
human biology includes any form of specialization for language. This conflict
is often referred to as the "Nature vs. Nurture" debate. Of course,
most scholars acknowledge that certain aspects of language acquisition must
result from the specific ways in which the human brain is "wired" (a "nature"
component, which accounts for the failure of non-human species to acquire human
languages) and that certain others are shaped by the particular language
environment in which a person is raised (a "nurture" component, which
accounts for the fact that humans raised in different societies acquire
different languages). The as-yet unresolved question is the extent to which the
specific cognitive capacities in the "nature" component are also used
outside of language.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><br /></span>
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background-color: white;">Theories of Language Acquisition:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>The Behaviorist Theory:</b> behaviorist
believes that children learn to speak by imitation and parents then reinforce
or correct their speech constantly. They believe that the child is born with an
empty slate and language items are written on that mental slate as the child
grows and experiences the world to which it is exposed.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>The Rationalist Theory:</b> Rationalist argues
that language learning is a much more complex process. The child is born with
all the facilities to learn the language. The linguistic ability is inherent in
the mind of the child. All that the child does is discover and test.</span></span></div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><br /></span>
</span><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b>The Cognitive Theory:</b> According to this
theory, children can only use certain linguistic structures when they
understand fully the concepts surrounding them. Jean Piaget linked language
acquisition to a child’s maturation. To use linguistic structures they must
understand the concept. A child use comparison of size if the child does not
understand the concept of size.</span><br />
<span><br /></span>
</span><div class="Section1">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Why Should We Care About Word Histories?<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">If a word's etymology is not the same as its definition, why should we
care at all about word histories? Well, for one thing, understanding how words
have developed can teach us a great deal about our cultural history. In
addition, studying the histories of familiar words can help us to deduce the
meanings of unfamiliar words, thereby enriching our vocabularies. Finally, word
stories are often both entertaining and thought provoking. As any youngster can
tell you, words are fun.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">History of Etymology:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">The search for
meaningful origins for familiar or strange words is far older than the modern
understanding of linguistic evolution and the relationships of languages, which
began no earlier than the 18th century. From Antiquity through the 17th
century, from Pāṇini to Pindar to Sir Thomas Browne, etymology had been a form
of witty wordplay, in which the supposed origins of words were changed to
satisfy contemporary requirements.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Greek poet
Pindar (born in approximately 522 BCE) employed creative etymologies to flatter
his patrons. Plutarch employed etymologies insecurely based on fancied
resemblances insounds. Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae was an encyclopedic
tracing of "first things" that remained uncritically in use in Europe
until the sixteenth century. Etymologicum genuinum is agrammatical encyclopedia
edited at Constantinople in the ninth century, one of several similar Byzantine
works. The fourteenth-century Legenda Aurea begins each vita of a saint with a
fancifulexcursus in the form of an etymology.[citation needed]<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Modern era:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Etymology in the
modern sense emerged in the late 18th century European academia, within the
context of the wider "Age of Enlightenment," although preceded by
17th century pioneers such asMarcus Zuerius van Boxhorn, Vossius, Stephen
Skinner, Elisha Coles, and William Wotton. The first known systematic attempt
to prove the relationship between two languages on the basis of similarity of
grammar and lexicon was made in 1770 by the Hungarian, János Sajnovics, when he
attempted to demonstrate the relationship between Sami and Hungarian (work that
was later extended to the whole Finno-Ugric language family in 1799 by his
fellow countryman, Samuel Gyarmathi).[3] The origin of modern historical
linguistics is often traced back to Sir William Jones, an English philologist
living in India, who in 1782 observed the genetic relationship between
Sanskrit, Greek and Latin. Jones published his The Sanskrit Language in 1786,
laying the foundation for the field of Indo-European linguistics.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">In etymology,
back-formation is the process of creating a new lexeme, usually by removing
actual or supposed affixes. The resulting neologism is called a back-formation,
a term coined byJames Murray in 1889. (OED online first definition of 'back
formation' is from the definition of to burgle, which was first published in
1889.)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span face="Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Etymology
Definition:</span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Etymology is the study
of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have
changed over time. By an extension, the term "the etymology of [a
word]" means the origin of the particular word.<o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
<span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"><b>The etymology of a word refers to its origin and historical development: that is, its earliest known use, its transmission from one language to another, and its changes in form and meaning. Etymology is also the term for the branch of linguistics that studies word histories.</b></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For languages with a
long written history, etymologists make use of texts in these languages and
texts about the languages to gather knowledge about how words were used during
earlier periods of their history and when they entered the languages in question.
Etymologists also apply the methods of comparative linguistics to reconstruct
information about languages that are too old for any direct information to be
available.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">By analyzing related
languages with a technique known as the comparative method, linguists can make
inferences about their shared parent language and its vocabulary. In this way,
word roots have been found that can be traced all the way back to the origin
of, for instance, the Indo-European language family.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Even though
etymological research originally grew from the philological tradition,
currently much etymological research is done on language families where little
or no early documentation is available, such as Uralic and Austronesian.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The word etymology is
derived from the Greek etymon, meaning "true sense" and the suffix
-logia, denoting "the study of". Etymon is also used in English to
refer to the source word of a given word. For example, Latin candidus, which
means "white", is the etymon of English candid.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Methods:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">Etymologists apply a
number of methods to study the origins of words, some of which are:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">• <b>Philological
research.</b> Changes in the form and meaning of the word can be traced with
the aid of older texts, if such are available.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">• <b>Making
use of dialectological data.</b> The form or meaning of the word might show
variations between dialects, which may yield clues about its earlier history.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">•<b> The
comparative method</b>. By a systematic comparison of related languages,
etymologists may often be able to detect which words derive from their common
ancestor language and which were instead later borrowed from another language.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">• <b>The
study of semantic change</b>. Etymologists must often make hypotheses about
changes in the meaning of particular words. Such hypotheses are tested against
the general knowledge of semantic shifts. For example, the assumption of a
particular change of meaning may be substantiated by showing that the same type
of change has occurred in other languages as well. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Semantic change</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">, also known as
semantic shift or semantic progression describes the evolution of word usage —
usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from the
original usage. In diachronic (or historical) linguistics, semantic change is a
change in one of the meanings of a word. Every word has a variety of senses and
connotations which can be added, removed, or altered over time, often to the
extent that cognates across space and time have very different meanings. The
study of semantic change can be seen as part of etymology,onomasiology,
semasiology, and semantics.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Types
of word origins:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">• Etymological theory recognizes that
words originate through a limited number of basic mechanisms, the most
important of which are <b>borrowing</b>
(i.e., the adoption of "loanwords" from other languages); word
formation such as <b>derivation</b> and <b>compounding</b>; and <b>onomatopoeia</b> and <b>sound
symbolism</b>, (i.e., the creation of imitative words such as
"click").<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">• While the origin of newly emerged
words is often more or less transparent, it tends to become obscured through
time due to sound change or semantic change. Due to sound change, it is not
readily obvious that the English word set is related to the word sit (the
former is originally a causative formation of the latter). It is even less
obvious that bless is related to blood (the former was originally a derivative
with the meaning "to mark with blood").<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">• Semantic change may also occur. For
example, the English word bead originally meant "prayer". It acquired
its modern meaning through the practice of counting the recitation of prayers
by using beads. Most often combinations of etymological mechanisms apply. For
example, the German word <b>bitte</b> (please) the German word <b>beten</b> (to
pray) and the Dutch word <b>bidden</b> (to pray) are related through sound and
meaning to the English word <b>bead</b>.</span></span></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->The combination of sound change and semantic
change often creates etymological connections that are impossible to detect by
merely looking at the modern word-forms. For instance, English <b>lord</b>
comes from Old <b>English hlāf-weard, meaning literally “bread guard”.</b> The
components of this compound, in turn, yielded modern English loaf and ward.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Types of semantic change:<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">There are a number of
possible ways of classifying types of semantic change. None of them totally
satisfactory.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo14; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Generalization
and Narrowing<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo14; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Amelioration
and Pejoration<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo14; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Strengthening
and Weakening<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo14; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Abstraction
and Concretization <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo14; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Shift in
Denotation<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 21.75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list 21.75pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">1<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Generalization
and narrowing</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 21.75pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Generalization
is extension of meaning to cover wider semantic areas. For example, the
Indo-European root <i>bhares</i>-meant “<i>barely” (</i>and is in fact the
ancestor of the English word <i>barely)</i> But the Latin descendant of this
root, <i>far,</i> could be used to mean cereal grain of various types and thus
is the source<b> </b>of<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 21.75pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"> Our word <i>farina, </i>a fine meal prepared
from any cereal grain. Narrowing, a more common type of change in English than
generalization, is a restriction in the range of meaning(s) of a word .an
example of narrowing would be the English word <i>mead </i>an alcoholic
beverage made from fermented honey. Its origin is the Indo-European root
medium, which referred to both honey and mead because English has the word
honey to refer to the unfermented fluid; the meaning of <i>mead</i> can be
narrowed to refer only to the fermented product.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 21.75pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 21.75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list 21.75pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">2<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Amelioration
and pejoration<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 21.75pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Amelioration,
or a change to a more favorable meaning, can be exemplified by the English word
<i>croon, </i>borrowed from the middle Dutch word<i> kronen </i>in English it
means to hum or sing softly, but in middle Dutch it meant to groan or lament <b>pejoration
</b>, the opposite of amelioration, is a change<b> </b>to a more negative
meaning. For example theEnglish word <i>fool</i> comes from the latin word <i>follies,</i>
which originally meant only “bellows” but came to mean “winding”, <i>air.</i>the fool in English uses in negative sense.<i>
</i><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 3.75pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 21.75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list 21.75pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">3<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Strengthening
and weakening<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 21.75pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Strengthening,
or intensification of meaning, is relatively rare. One example is the word <i>down,
</i>from the same root as the words <i>drink </i>and <i>drench. </i> Because of the universal tendency to
exaggerate .Weakening or meaning is much more common than strengthening. two of
the many possible instances of weakening
between old English (OE) and Present Day English (PDE) are OE <i>sona
‘immediately”, PDE </i>soon and OE <i>owellan
‘ kill’, ‘murder’.<o:p></o:p></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 21.75pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 21.75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list 21.75pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">4<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Abstraction
and concretization<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 21.75pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Abstraction
occurs when specific, concrete meaning changes to a more abstract meaning, for
instance, OE heathen once meant simple one dwelling on the wealth. But because
of the association of heath with wilderness and lack of civilization, the term <i>heathan
</i>acquired its present more abstract meaning of ‘irreligious, unenlightened
un civilized’ concretization is the reverse process, as an example, one could
cite the indo-European root <i>albtio- </i>which meant ‘<i>white’</i> one of
its reflexes is OE <i>aelf</i>, PDE elf<i>, </i>a change in meaning from the
abstract quality of whiteness to an instance of something concrete that has
this quality<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 3.75pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 21.75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list 21.75pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">5<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Shift in
Denotation</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 21.75pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">A
shift in denotation occurs when the real world reference of a word changes. For
example, OE <i>clud</i> meant <i>“rock, hill”</i> but its PDE descendant is <i>cloud</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">A
number of classification schemes have been suggested for semantic change. The
most widely accepted scheme in the English-speaking academic world is from
Bloomfield (1933):<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Narrowing:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Change from superordinate level to
subordinate level. For example, skyline used to refer to any horizon, but now
it has narrowed to a horizon decorated by skyscrapers.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Widening:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Change from subordinate level to
superordinate level. There are many examples of specific brand names being used
for the general product, such as with Kleenex. Such uses are known as
generonyms.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Metaphor</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Change based on similarity of thing. For
example, broadcast originally meant "to cast seeds out"; with the
advent of radio and television, the word was extended to indicate the
transmission of audio and video signals. Outside of agricultural circles, very
few people use broadcast in the earlier sense.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Metonymy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Change based on nearness in space or
time, e.g., jaw "cheek" → "mandible".<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Synecdoche</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Change based on whole-part relation.
The convention of using capital cities to represent countries or their
governments is an example of this.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Meiosis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Change from weaker to stronger
meaning, e.g., kill "torment" → "slaughter"<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Hyperbole</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Change from stronger to weaker meaning, e.g.,
astound "strike with thunder" → "surprise strongly".<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Degeneration</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: e.g., knave "boy" →
"servant" → "deceitful or despicable man".<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Elevation</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: e.g., knight "boy" →
"nobleman".<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">However,
the categorization of Blank (1998) has gained increasing acceptance:<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Metaphor</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Change based on similarity between
concepts, e.g., mouse "rodent" → "computer device".<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Metonymy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Change based on contiguity between
concepts, e.g., horn "animal horn" → "musical instrument".<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Synecdoche</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Same as above.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Specialization of meaning:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Downward shift
in a taxonomy, e.g., corn "grain" → "wheat" (UK), →
"maize" (US).<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Generalization of meaning</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Upward shift
in a taxonomy, e.g., hoover "Hoover vacuum cleaner" → "any type
of vacuum cleaner".<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Cohyponymic transfer:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Horizontal
shift in a taxonomy, e.g., the confusion of mouse and rat in some dialects.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Antiphrasis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Change based on a contrastive aspect
of the concepts, e.g., perfect lady in the sense of "prostitute".<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Auto-antonymy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Change of a word's sense and concept
to the complementary opposite, e.g., bad in the slang sense of
"good".<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Auto-converse:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Lexical expression of a
relationship by the two extremes of the respective relationship, e.g., take in
the dialectal use as "give".<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Ellipsis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Semantic change based on the
contiguity of names, e.g., car "cart" → "automobile", due
to the invention of the (motor) car.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Folk-etymology</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Semantic change based on the
similarity of names, e.g., French contredanse, orig. English country dance.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Blank considers
it problematic, though, to include amelioration and pejoration of meaning as
well as strengthening and weakening of meaning. According to Blank, these are
not objectively classifiable phenomena; moreover, Blank has shown that all of
the examples listed under these headings can be grouped into the other
phenomena.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Back-formation</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> is different from <b>clipping</b>
– back-formation may change the part of speech or the word's meaning, whereas
clipping creates shortened words from longer words, but does not change the
part of speech or the meaning of the word.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">For example, the
noun resurrection was borrowed from Latin, and the verb resurrect was then
backformed hundreds of years later from it by removing the ion suffix. This
segmentation ofresurrection into resurrect + ion was possible because English
had examples of Latinate words in the form of verb and verb+-ion pairs, such as
opine/opinion. These became the pattern for many more such pairs, where a verb
derived from a Latin supine stem and a noun ending in ion entered the language
together, such as insert/insertion, project/projection, etc.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Back-formation
may be similar to the reanalyses of folk etymologies when it rests on an
erroneous understanding of the morphology of the longer word. For example, the
singular noun asset is a back-formation from the plural assets. However, assets
is originally not a plural; it is a loan-word from Anglo-Norman asetz (modern
French assez). The -s was reanalyzed as a plural suffix.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Back-formation in the English language:<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Many words came
into English by this route: Pease was once a mass noun but was reinterpreted as
a plural, leading to the back-formation pea. The noun statistic was likewise a
back-formation from the field of study statistics. In Britain, the verb burgle
came into use in the 19th century as a back-formation from burglar (which can
be compared to the North American verb burglarize formed by suffixation).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Other examples are:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Adjective
"couth" from "uncouth"<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Verb
"edit" from "editor"<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Singular
"syrinx", plural "syringes" (from Greek): new singular
"syringe" formed<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Singular
"sastruga", plural "sastrugi" (from Russian): new
Latin-type singular "sastrugus" has been used sometimes<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Verbs
"euthanase" or "euthanize" from the noun
"euthanasia".<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><br /></span>
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">Methods Of Etymology:<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">Etymology
is the study of the history of words — when they entered a language, from what
source, and how their form and meaning have changed over time.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">Etymological
theory recognizes that words originate through a limited number of basic
mechanisms, the most important of which are the following:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">· Borrowing, i.e. the adoption of
loanwords from other languages.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">· Word formation such as derivation and
compounding.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">· Onomatopoeia and sound symbolism, i.e.
the creation of imitative words.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">While
the origin of newly emerged words is often more or less transparent, it tends
to become obscured through time due to:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">· Sound change: for example, it is not
obvious at first sight that English set is related to sit (the former is
originally a causative formation of the latter), and even less so that bless is
related to blood (the former was originally a derivative with the meaning “to
mark with blood”, or the like).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">· Semantic change: English bead
originally meant “prayer”, and acquired its modern sense through the practice
of counting prayers with beads.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">Most
often combinations of etymological mechanisms apply. For example, the German
word bitte (please) the German word beten (to pray) and the Dutch word bidden
(to pray) are related through sound and meaning to the English word bead.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">The
combination of sound change and semantic change often creates etymological
connections that are impossible to detect by merely looking at the modern
word-forms. For instance, English lord comes from Old English hlāf-weard,
meaning literally “bread guard”. The components of this compound, in turn,
yielded modern English loaf and ward.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">Synchronic analysis:<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 14.55pt; margin: 6pt 0in;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">In linguistics, a
synchronic analysis is one that views linguistic phenomena only at one point in
time, usually the present, though a synchronic analysis of a historical
language form is also possible. In
linguistics, a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>synchronic
analysis</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is one that views
linguistic phenomena only at a given time, usually the present, though a synchronic
analysis of a historical language form is also possible. This may be
distinguished from diachronic, which regards a phenomenon in terms of
developments through time. Diachronic analysis is the main concern of <span color="windowtext" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; text-underline: none;">historical
linguistics</span>; most other
branches of linguistics are concerned with some form of synchronic analysis.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 14.55pt; margin: 6pt 0in;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">Synchronic and diachronic approaches can reach
quite different conclusions. For example, a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span color="windowtext" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; text-underline: none;">Germanic strong verb</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>like English<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>sing
- sang - sung</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span color="windowtext" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; text-underline: none;">irregular</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>when viewed synchronically: the native speaker's<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span color="windowtext" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; text-underline: none;">brain processes</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>these as learned forms, whereas the derived
forms of regular verbs are processed quite differently, by the application of
productive rules (for example, adding<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>-ed</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>to the basic form of a verb as in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>walk - walked</i>). This is an
insight of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span color="windowtext" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; text-underline: none;">psycholinguistics</span>, relevant also for<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span color="windowtext" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; text-underline: none;">language didactics</span>, both of which are synchronic disciplines.
However a diachronic analysis will show that the strong verb is the remnant of
a fully regular system of internal vowel changes; historical linguistics seldom
uses the category "<span color="windowtext" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; text-underline: none;">irregular verb</span>".<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">This
may be distinguished from <b>diachronic</b>,
which regards a phenomenon in terms of developments through time<b>. Diachronic analysis</b> is the main
concern of historical linguistics; most other branches of linguistics are
concerned with some form of synchronic analysis.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">Synchronic
and diachronic approaches can reach quite different conclusions. For example, a
Germanic strong verb like English sing - sang - sung is irregular when viewed
synchronically: the native speaker's brain processes these as learned forms,
whereas the derived forms of regular verbs are processed quite differently, by
the application of productive rules (for example, adding –ed to the basic form
of a verb as in walk - walked). This is an insight of psycholinguistics,
relevant also for language didactics, both of which are synchronic disciplines.
However a diachronic analysis will show that the strong verb is the remnant of
a fully regular system of internal vowel changes; historical linguistics seldom
uses the category "irregular verb".<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Historical
linguistics</span></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(also called<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>diachronic
linguistics</b>):</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Historical linguistics</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(also called<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>diachronic linguistics)</span> has been defined by Nordquist as "one of the two main
temporal dimensions of language study introduced by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de
Saussure in his<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Course in
General Linguistics</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1916)".<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>The central focus of historical
linguistics is the study of language at different periods in history and as it
changes between different periods of history. Historical linguistics is
directly compared and distinguished from<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>synchronic
analysis<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>which studies language
at a single historical period of time. Five of the principal concerns of
historical linguistics are: (a) to describe and account for observed changes in
particular languages, (b) to reconstruct the pre-history of languages and
determine their relatedness, grouping them into</span> language families<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(</span>comparative linguistics<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">), (c)
to develop general theories about how and why language changes, (d) to describe
the history of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>speech communities,
and (e) to study the history of words, i.e.</span> etymology<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 14.55pt; margin: 6pt 0in;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">In<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span color="windowtext" style="text-underline: none;">linguistics</span>,
the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>comparative method</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is a technique for studying the
development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two
or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor, as opposed to the
method of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span color="windowtext" style="text-underline: none;">internal reconstruction</span>, which analyses
the internal development of a single language over time.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Ordinarily both methods are used
together to reconstruct prehistoric phases of languages, to fill in gaps in the
historical record of a language, to discover the development of phonological,
morphological, and other linguistic systems, and to confirm or refute
hypothesized relationships between languages.</span></span></div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><br /></span>
<span><br /></span>
</span><div style="line-height: 14.55pt; margin: 6pt 0in;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">The comparative
method was developed over the 19th century. Key contributions were made by the
Danish scholars<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Rasmus Rask<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Karl
Verner<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and the German scholar<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span color="windowtext" style="text-underline: none;">Jacob Grimm</span>.
The first linguist to offer<span color="windowtext" style="text-underline: none;">reconstructed forms</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>from a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>proto-language<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>was<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span color="windowtext" style="text-underline: none;">August Schleicher</span>,
in his<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Compendium der
vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen</i>, originally
published in 1861.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Here is
Schleicher’s explanation of why he offered reconstructed forms: </span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 14.55pt; margin: 6pt 0in;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">In the present
work an attempt is made to set forth the inferred Indo-European original
language side by side with its really existent derived languages. Besides the
advantages offered by such a plan, in setting immediately before the eyes of
the student the final results of the investigation in a more concrete form, and
thereby rendering easier his insight into the nature of particular
Indo-European languages, there is, I think, another of no less importance
gained by it, namely that it shows the baselessness of the assumption that the
non-Indian Indo-European languages were derived from Old-Indian (Sanskrit).</span></span></div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><br /></span>
<span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">English language:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">English derives
from Old English (sometimes referred to as Anglo-Saxon), a West Germanic
variety, although its current vocabulary includes words from many languages.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Old English
roots may be seen in the similarity of numbers in English and German, particularly <b>seven/sieben, eight/acht,
nine/neun, and ten/zehn. Pronouns are also cognate: I/mine/me
ich/mein/mich;thou/thine/thee and du/dein/dich; we/wir us/uns; she/sie</b>.
However, language change has eroded many grammatical elements, such as the noun
case system, which is greatly simplified in modern English, and certain
elements of vocabulary, some of which are borrowed from French. Although many
of the words in the English lexicon come from Romance languages, most of the
common words used in English are of Germanic origin. When the Normans conquered
England in 1066 (see Norman Conquest), they brought their Norman language with
them. During the Anglo-Norman period, which united insular and continental
territories, the ruling class spoke Anglo-Norman, while the peasants spoke the
vernacular English of the time. Anglo-Norman was the conduit for the
introduction of French into England, aided by the circulation of Langue d'oïl
literature from France. This led to many paired words of French and English
origin. For example, <b>beef is related, through borrowing, to modern French
bœuf, veal toveau, pork to porc, and poultry to poulet.</b> All these words,
French and English, refer to the meat rather than to the animal. Words that
refer to farm animals, on the other hand, tend to be cognates of words in other
Germanic languages. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">For example <b>swine/Schwein,
cow/Kuh, calf/Kalb, and sheep/Schaf.</b> The variant usage has been explained
by the proposition that it was the Norman rulers who mostly ate meat (an
expensive commodity) and the Anglo-Saxons who farmed the animals. This
explanation has passed into common folklore but has been disputed.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">English has
proven accommodating to words from many languages, as described in the
following examples. Scientific terminology relies heavily on words of Latin and
Greek origin. Spanish has contributed many words, particularly in the
southwestern United States. Examples include buckaroo from vaquero or
"cowboy"; alligator from el lagarto or "lizard"; rodeo and
savvy; states' names such as Colorado and Florida. Cuddle, eerie, and greed
come from Scots; albino, palaver, lingo, verandah, and coconut from Portuguese;
diva, prima donna, pasta, pizza, paparazzi, and umbrellafrom Italian; adobe,
alcohol, algebra, algorithm, apricot, assassin, caliber, cotton, hazard,
jacket, jar, julep, mosque, Muslim, orange, safari, sofa, and zero from Arabic;
honcho, sushi, andtsunami from Japanese; dim sum, gung ho, kowtow, kumquat,
ketchup, and typhoon from Cantonese; behemoth, hallelujah, Satan, jubilee, and
rabbi from Hebrew; taiga, sable, and sputnik fromRussian; galore, whiskey,
phoney, trousers, and Tory from Irish; brahman, guru, karma, and pandit from
Sanskrit; kampong and amok from Malay; smorgasbord and ombudsman from Swedish,
Danish, Norwegian; sauna from Finnish; and boondocks from the Tagalog word,
bundok. (See also "loanword.")<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Is the Etymology
of a Word Its True Definition?<o:p></o:p></span></b></span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Not at all,
though people sometimes try to make this argument. The word etymology is
derived from the Greek word etymon, which means "the true sense of a
word." But in fact the original meaning of a word is often different from
its contemporary definition.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The meanings of
many words have changed over time, and older senses of a word may grow uncommon
or disappear entirely from everyday use. Disaster, for instance, no longer
means the "evil influence of a star or planet," just as consider no
longer means "to observe the stars." <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Let's look at
another example. Our English word salary is defined by The American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language as "fixed compensation for services,
paid to a person on a regular basis." Its etymology can be traced back
2,000 years to sal, the Latin word for salt. So what's the connection between
salt and salary?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The Roman
historian Pliny the Elder tells us that "in Rome, a soldier was paid in
salt," which back then was widely used as a food preservative. Eventually,
this salarium came to signify a stipend paid in any form, usually money. Even
today the expression "worth your salt" indicates that you're working hard
and earning your salary. However, this doesn't mean that salt is the true
definition of salary.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Where Do Words
Come From?<o:p></o:p></span></b></span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">New words have
entered (and continue to enter) the English language in many different ways.
Here are some of the most common ways. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Borrowing</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">The majority of
the words used in modern English have been borrowed from other languages.
Although most of our vocabulary comes from Latin and Greek (often by way of
other European languages), English has borrowed words from more than 300 different
languages around the world. Here are just a few examples: <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">• futon (from the Japanese word for
"bedclothes, bedding")<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">• gorilla (Greek Gorillai, a tribe of
hairy women, perhaps of African origin)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">• hamster (Middle High German hamastra)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">• kangaroo (Aboriginal language of
Guugu Yimidhirr, gangurru , referring to a species of kangaroo)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">• kink (Dutch, "twist in a
rope")<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">• moccasin (Native American Indian,
Virginia Algonquian, akin to Powhatan mäkäsn and Ojibwa makisin)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">• molasses (Portuguese melaços, from
Late Latin mellceum, from Latin mel, "honey")<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">• muscle (Latin musculus,
"mouse")<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">• slogan (alteration of Scots slogorne,
"battle cry")<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">• smorgasbord (Swedish, literally
"bread and butter table")<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">• whiskey (Old Irish uisce,
"water," and bethad, "of life")<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Clipping or Shortening<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Some new words
are simply shortened forms of existing words, for instance indie from
independent; exam from examination; flu from influenza, and fax from facsimile.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Compounding<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">A new word may
also be created by combining two or more existing words: fire engine, for
example, and babysitter.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Blends<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">A blend (also
called a portmanteau word) is a word formed by merging the sounds and meanings
of two or more other words. Examples include moped, from mo(tor) + ped(al), and
brunch, from br(eakfast) + (l)unch.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Conversion or Functional Shift<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">New words are
often formed by changing an existing word from one part of speech to another.
For example, innovations in technology have encouraged the transformation of
the nouns network, Google, microwave, and fax into verbs.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Transfer of Proper Nouns<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Sometimes the
names of people, places, and things become generalized vocabulary words. For
instance, the noun maverick was derived from the name of an American cattleman,
Samuel Augustus Maverick. The saxophone was named after Sax, the surname of a
19th-century Belgian family that made musical instruments.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Neologisms or Creative Coinages<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">A neologism</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> ( /niːˈɒlədʒɪzəm/;
from Greek νέο- (néo-), meaning "new", and λόγος (lógos), meaning
"speech, utterance") is a newly coined term, word, or phrase, that
may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted
into mainstream language. Neologisms are often directly attributable to a
specific person, publication, period, or event. Neolexia (Greek: a "new
word", or the act of creating a new word) is a fully equivalent term.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Neologisms are
often created by combining existing words (see compound noun and adjective) or
by giving words new and unique suffixes or prefixes. Portmanteaux are combined
words that are sometimes used commonly. "Brunch" is an example of a
portmanteau word (breakfast + lunch). Lewis Carroll's "snark" (snake
+ shark) is also a portmanteau. Neologisms also can be created through
abbreviation or acronym, by intentionally rhyming with existing words or simply
through playing with sounds.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">When a word or
phrase is no longer "new", it is no longer a neologism. Neologisms
may take decades to become "old", however. Opinions differ on exactly
how old a word must be to cease being considered a neologism.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Now and then,
new products or processes inspire the creation of entirely new words. Such
neologisms are usually short lived, never even making it into a dictionary.
Nevertheless, some have endured, for example quark (coined by novelist James
Joyce), galumph (Lewis Carroll), aspirin (originally a trademark), grok (Robert
A. Heinlein).<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Imitation of Sounds<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Words are also
created by onomatopoeia, naming things by imitating the sounds that are
associated with them: boo, bow-wow, tinkle, click.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Phonetics</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">The branch
of linguistics that studies word components of the phonetic system of the
language. <o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Concerned
with human noises by which the thought is actualized or given audible
shape + nature, fs, relation to the meaning of these noises<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Phonetics
is the study of speech sounds. Although language is obviously composed of
sound, speech sounds came to be the main focus of linguistic investigation only
in the 20th century. 19th century linguists were more interested in written
rather than spoken language. Only with the work of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de
Saussure in the early 20th century did linguists recognize the primacy of sound
in human language and the secondary, superficial nature of writing.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Phonetics has
three branches:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Acoustic phonetics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: is the study of the physical
properties of sounds, the air wave frequencies of which sounds consist. The
frequency of vibrations measured in hertz; volume of sound measured in
decibels. Instruments used to measure and record speech sounds include the
sound spectrograph, which produces readouts called sound spectrograms.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Auditory phonetics:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> is the study of
how sounds are perceived by the human ear or recognized by the brain. (Mention
Oronyms, Mondegreens.)<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Articulatory phonetics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: is the study
of how sounds are produced by the vocal apparatus/how speech sounds are made or
articulated.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 72.4pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Components of phonetic system</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">segmental
phonemes<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">word stress<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">syllabic
structure<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">intonation<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Phoneme</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Smallest distinctive speech sounds in
a language. Each phoneme in a language is unique and different from other
phoneme. It is the smallest unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts
between utterances. If phoneme changes, meaning also changes. Each spoken word
has one or more individual phoneme.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">P</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">an – Span
(Same phoneme)<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">P</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">an – tan
(Different phoneme)<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The phoneme<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Basic
concept of phonetics.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Smallest
unit of language, existing as such speech sound which is capable of
differentiating one word from another, or one grammatical form from another.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Speech
sound that makes a difference in meaning<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">A class or
family of sounds regarded as a single sound and represented in
transcription by the same symbol<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Abstractional
and generalized in character exists in our minds as an abstraction and at
the same time is generalized in speech in the form of its allophones<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Phoneme may be</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> pronounced differently in
different ws but still remain the same phoneme <b><i>pleat-play-wale.<o:p></o:p></i></b></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2
main</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">
classes of phonemes: <b>vowels</b>
and <b>consonants</b> <b><i><o:p></o:p></i></b></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Pairs of words
that demonstrate a phonemic contrast <b>–
minimal pai</b>rs (discovered by method of commutation) <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Phonemics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Study of the sound system / phoneme of
a given language. It is also the classification and analysis of its phoneme.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Morpheme:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Smallest meaningful unit into which a
word can be divided. <b>Free Morpheme</b>
can be used alone as individual words.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Eg: Take, Slighly.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span><br /></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Bound morpheme</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> form words only when attached to
one morpheme. Bound morpheme are prefixes and suffixes. <o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">UN-</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">SLIGHT-LY
(Bound – free –bound morpheme)<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Affixes: Prefixes and suffixes.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Inflectional affix</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> – Shows a grammatical feature.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: auto; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
</span><br />
</span><div class="Section2">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Example: Crown – Crowns<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"> Go – Going<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: auto; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
</span><br />
</span><div class="Section3">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Derivational af</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">fixes are either prefixes or
suffixes, which changes the meaning of the word to which they are attached.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: auto; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
</span><br />
</span><div class="Section4">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Eg: Plant – Transplant<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"> Believable – unbelievable<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"> Joy – Joyless<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: auto; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
</span><br />
</span><div class="Section5">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Syntax</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> is the arrangement of words into
phrases and sentences. It is words arranged into phrases and phrase arranged
into sentences. Words put in order.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Eg. I had stolen
the car / I had the car stolen / Stolen the car I.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Grapheme</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> – Smallest meaningful unit of a written
language.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">Morphology </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">Is the arrangement and relationship of the smallest meaningful units
in a language these minimum units of meaning are called morphemes. It is often
useful to distinguish between <b>free </b>and<b> bound</b> morphemes<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">Free morphemes</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"> can be used alone as independent words for example, <i>take, for,
each</i> etc<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">Bound morphemes</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"> form words only when attached to at least one other morphemes<i>; re,
dis</i> <i>,un, -ing, –ful </i>and<i> –tion</i>
are all bound morphemes.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">The most familiar <b>bound
morphemes</b> are affixes (that is, prefixes and suffixes) but even bases
(Forms to which affixes are attached) can be bound. An example of a bound base
is the <i>–cept</i> of words as except, accept, deceptive, and reception;
although -<i>cept</i> derives from an independent Latin verb <i>capere </i>‘to
take’, it appears only as a bound morpheme in English.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">Syntax</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"> is the arrangement of words in to phrases, clauses, and sentences,
loosely speaking, it is word order. A simple example like the difference
between <b>I had stolen my</b> <b>car</b> and<b> I had my car stolen</b> illustrates how crucial syntax is in English.
English speakers have more option with
respect to syntax than they do with respect to phonology or morphology. But we
have the option of saying either<b> I like
dogs. Or dogs</b> <b>I like</b>. This freedom is limited, however; they cannot say <b>like dogs I. Or Like I dogs.<o:p></o:p></b></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">The Lexicon</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"> of a language is the list of all the Morphemes in the language. In
linguistic terminology, a lexicon differs from vocabulary or a dictionary of a
language in that it includes not only independent words but also morphemes that
do not appear as independent words, including affixes such as-ed, -s, mis, and
poly- and bound forms like the –clude of include, exclude, and preclude, which
appear only as part of words and never as independent words. One of the most
remarkable features of English today is the great size and diversity of origin
of its Lexicon.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Philology</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> is the study of
language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary studies,
history and linguistics.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">Semantics </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">is the study of meanings or all the meanings
expressed by a language. It is the relationship between language and the real
world, between the sounds we make and what we are talking about like all other
aspects of language, meanings change overtime<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">There are a number of possible ways of
classifying types of semantic change. None of them are totally satisfactory:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: auto; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
</span><br />
</span><div class="Section6">
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Generalization
and Narrowing.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Amelioration and
Pejoration.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Strengthening and
Weakening.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Abstraction and
Concretization.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Shift in
Denotation.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: auto; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
</span><br />
</span><div class="Section7">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Affix</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: An affix is a
morpheme which is added to a root morpheme in the formation of a word. In its
broadest sense, an affix can be a prefix, a suffix, or an infix. More narrowly,
infixes are sometimes treated separately. See also morphology.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">ATN
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">=
Augmented Transition Network.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Diphthong</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: If the tongue
moves significantly during the production of a vowel phone, the result is a
diphthong. A diphthong sounds like a rapid, blended sequence of two separate
vowels. An example in English is the vowel sound in the word kite, which is
like a rapid combination of a kind of 'a sound' and a kind of 'i sound'. In the
IPA a diphthong is represented by two vowel symbols. It is important to note
that the two symbols represent a SINGLE phone.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Ellipsis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: A technical term for leaving out words in
sentences. For example, in Brian ate the ice-cream and Judy the peaches, there
is ellipsis, since the word ate is omitted after Judy.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Grapheme</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: A grapheme is a 'spelling unit'. For example,
in Spanish the combination ll represents a different sound from a single l.
Thus these are two graphemes. In English, graphemes may be quite complex. For
example -tion behaves more-or-less as a single grapheme in words like function.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Inflection</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: A grammatical change in the form of a word
(more accurately of a lexeme), which leaves the 'base meaning' and the
grammatical category of the word unchanged. In English, inflections are
restricted to the endings of words (i.e. suffixes). Other languages may show
changes elsewhere. As an example, the suffix s is the usual written plural
inflection in English. Inflections in nouns may show changes of number, gender,
case, etc.; in verbs, of number, person, tense, aspect, etc. See also
morphology.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p style="background-color: white;"></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Intonation</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Intonation refers to changes in the tone or
frequency of sounds during speech. For example, in English the tone usually
falls at the end of a statement and rises at the end of a question, so that You
want some coffee. and You want some coffee? can be distinguished by tone alone.
In some languages (e.g. Chinese, Thai), sequences containing the same phones
but with different intonation patterns correspond to different words.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">IPA:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> The International Phonetic Alphabet or IPA is
a set of symbols which can be used to represent the phones and phonemes of
natural languages. A subset which can be used to represent 'Standard English
English' (roughly the dialect of middle-class people from the south east of
England) is given in a separate table.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Morphology</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: The structure of words and the study of this
structure. For example, a morphological analysis of the English word
unknowingly might yield four components, called morphemes. These are the root
know and three affixes, the prefix un indicating negation, and two suffixes ing
and ly. Note that both spelling and pronunciation changes can take place when
morphemes are combined. Thus the root happy plus the affix ly yields happily
not *happyly. Many English words appear to contain morphemes, but resist neat
division. For example, the suffix ish often indicates that the word refers to a
language (e.g. English, Spanish, Danish, Swedish), but removing the suffix does
not always leave a clear root morpheme (e.g. Spanish = ?Span(e) + ish). In
other cases, it may be that a word was in the past created from distinct
morphemes, but that this is not obvious to a contemporary speaker as the
morphemes are no longer used in forming new words.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">When
an affix morpheme is an inflection, the word can be said to show inflectional
morphology. Thus the word chased (= chase + ed) shows inflectional morphology.
In many languages, including English, inflectional morphology is relatively
predictable, and can be handled by rules.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">In
other cases, the word can be said to show derivational morphology. Thus the
word output = out + put shows derivational morphology: adding the prefix out to
the verb put creates a noun with the approximate meaning "that which was
put out". In many languages, including English, derivational morphology is
unpredictable, and so cannot easily be handled by rules. Thus there's no noun
*outgo meaning "that which went out" (although there is a noun, most
often used in the plural, outgoings = out + go + ing + s).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: auto; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
</span><br />
</span><div class="Section8">
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">NL</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> = Natural
Language.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">NLP</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> = Natural
Language Processing.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: auto; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
</span><br />
</span><div class="Section9">
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Phone</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: A phone is a 'unit sound' of a language in
the sense that it is the minimal sound by which two words can differ. For
example, the English word feed contains three phones since each can be
independently substituted to form a different word. In the IPA, the three
phones can be written as [f], [i] and [d]. Examples of substitutions are: [fid]
- [f] + [s] gives [sid], i.e. seed; [fid] - [i] + [u] gives [fud], i.e. food;
[fid] - [d] + [t] gives [fit], i.e. feet. The whole of each phone must be
substituted to change one word into another. It is important to note that
whether or not speakers can distinguish between sounds is not a test of whether
they constitute distinct phones. The word tea could be represented as [ti] and
the word tree as [tri]. However, the two 't sounds' are not quite the same: the
tongue is further back in the mouth when pronouncing the [t] in [tri] than when
pronouncing the [t] in [ti]. How far to divide up sounds into phones is
essentially a pragmatic question. Using more phones will enable speech to
represented more accurately but at a cost in terms of complexity. See also
allophone, phoneme.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Phoneme</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: A phoneme is a minimally distinctive set of
sounds in a language; sound sequences which differ in a single phoneme can
constitute different words. Thus the pairs tip-dip and trip-drip show that
English has two distinct phonemes, which we can write as /t/ and /d/, since
substituting one for the other produces a different word. However, the
pronunciation of /t/ (and /d/) is not the same in each pair: the tongue is
further back in the mouth when /t/ is followed by /r/. Hence there are at least
two phones corresponding to the /t/ phoneme. However there are no two English
words in which the ONLY difference is that the 't sound in trip' is replaced by
the 't sound in tip' -- these two sounds are allophones of the same phoneme.
English speakers do not need to recognize the difference between them.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Phonetics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: Phonetics is
the study of the sounds of speech (i.e. the study of phones). It can be
distinguished from phonology which is more concerned with the underlying theory
(i.e. the phonemes which underlie phones and the rules which govern the
conversion of phonemes to phones and vice versa).<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Phonological
rule</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: At some theoretical level, words can be considered
to be composed of phonemes. The actual sound of a word then depends on which
allophone is chosen for each phoneme. The context-sensitive rules which
determine this are called phonological rules. Thus the word input can be
considered to contain the phoneme /n/. However in fast speech in many dialects
of English, the phone used will be [m]. The relevant phonological rule for
English is that a nasal becomes articulated at the same position as a following
stop.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Pragmatics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: A technical term meaning, roughly, what the
person speaking or writing actually meant, rather than what the words
themselves mean.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Prefix:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> A prefix is a morpheme which is added before
a root morpheme in the formation of a word. See morphology.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Referential
semantics:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> A system where the meaning of a word just is
the thing it refers to.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Semantic
feature</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: A semantic feature is a 'primitive' which a
language processor (human or computer) is assumed to be able to determine
independently of the language system. The meaning of words such as nouns or
adjectives can then be described in terms of sets of these features. For
example we might describe the meaning of words such as boy, man, girl and woman
in terms of the features YOUNG, MALE and HUMAN. Boy would be [+YOUNG, +MALE,
+HUMAN], woman would be [-YOUNG, -MALE, +HUMAN]<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Stress
Words</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">
can be divided into syllables, usually centred around a vowel. In many
languages, including English, the duration and relative loudness of a syllable
-- its stress -- are important. Thus only stress distinguishes the noun PROcess
(as in the sentence This process is called assimilation) from the much less
common verb proCESS (as in the sentence I usually process at the degree
ceremony). The noun is stressed on the first syllable, the verb on the second.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Suffix</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: A suffix is a morpheme which is added after a
root morpheme in the formation of a word. See morphology.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Syntax</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">: The syntax of a language comprises, roughly
speaking, the patterns into which its words can be validly arranged to form
sentences. The combination of morphology and syntax is sometimes called the
grammar of a language.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><br /></b>
<b>Nonverbal communication:<o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
Nonverbal
communication is usually understood as the process of communication
through sending and receiving wordless (mostly visual) messages between people.
Messages can be communicated through gestures and touch, by body language or
posture, by facial expression and eye contact. Nonverbal messages could also be
communicated through material exponential; meaning, objects or artifacts (such
as clothing, hairstyles or architecture). Speech contains nonverbal elements
known as para language, including voice quality, rate, pitch, volume, and speaking
style, as well prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation, and stress.
Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style,
spatial arrangement of words, or the physical layout of a page. However, much
of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face
interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas:
environmental conditions where communication takes place, physical
characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of communicators during interaction.</span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
<b>Proxemics: Physical Space in Communication:<o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
When you are talking to someone stay out of their
“intimate space” they want to talk to you but just do not want to have you all
over them. “ Most animals have a certain air space around their bodies that
they claim as their personal space…1-18 in being the intimate zone, 18-48 in
being the personal zone, 4-12 ft. being the social zone and the public zone at
over 12 ft.”</span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
<b>Proxemics</b>
is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space around them. The
space between the sender and the receiver of a message influences the way the
message is interpreted. In addition, the perception and use of space varies
significantly across cultures[10] and different settings within cultures. Space
in nonverbal communication may be divided into four main categories: intimate,
social, personal, and public space.</span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
<b>Chronemics: Time in communication:<o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
Chronemics is the study of the use of time in
nonverbal communication. The way we perceive time, structure our time and react
to time is a powerful communication tool and helps set the stage for
communication. Time perceptions include punctuality and the willingness to
wait, plus the speed of speech and how long people are willing to listen. The
timing and frequency of an action as well as the tempo and rhythm of
communications within an interaction contributes to the interpretation of
nonverbal messages. Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey (1988) identified two dominant
time patterns: monochronic time and polychronic time.</span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
<b>Monochronic Time:<o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
<span>A monochronic time system means that things are
done one at a time and time is segmented into precise, small units. Under this
system time is scheduled, arranged and managed.</span><br />
<span>The United States is considered a monochronic
society. This perception of time is learned and rooted in the Industrial
Revolution, where "factory life required the labor force to be on hand and
in place at an appointed hour" (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999, p.
238). For Americans, time is a precious resource not to be wasted or taken
lightly. "We buy time, save time, spend time and make time. Our time can
be broken down into years, months, days, hours, minutes, seconds and even
milliseconds. We use time to structure both our daily lives and events that we
are planning for the future. We have schedules that we must follow:
appointments that we must go to at a certain time, classes that start and end
at certain times, work schedules that start and end at certain times, and even
our favorite TV shows, that start and end at a certain time.”</span><br />
<span><br /></span>
<span>As communication scholar Edward T. Hall wrote
regarding the American viewpoint of time in the business world, “the schedule
is sacred.” Hall says that for monochronic cultures, “time is tangible” and
viewed as a commodity where “time is money” or “time is wasted.” The result of
this perspective is that Americans and other monochronic cultures, such as the
German and Swiss, place a paramount value on schedules, tasks and “getting the
job done.” These cultures are committed to regimented schedules and may view
those who do not subscribe to the same perception of time as disrespectful.</span><br />
<span>Monochronic cultures include Germany, Canada,
Switzerland, the United States, and Scandinavia.</span><br />
<span><br /></span>
<b>Polychronic Time:<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<span>A polychronic time system is a system where
several things can be done at once, and a more fluid approach is taken to
scheduling time. Unlike Americans and most northern and western European
cultures, Native American, Latin American, Arab and African cultures use the
polychronic system of time.</span><br />
<span><br /></span>
<span>These cultures are much less focused on the
preciseness of accounting for each and every moment. As Raymond Cohen notes,
polychronic cultures are deeply steeped in tradition rather than in tasks—a
clear difference from their monochronic counterparts. Cohen notes that
"Traditional societies have all the time in the world. The arbitrary
divisions of the clock face have little saliency in cultures grounded in the cycle
of the seasons, the invariant pattern of rural life, and the calendar of
religious festivities" (Cohen, 1997, p. 34).</span><br />
<span><br /></span>
<span>Instead, their culture is more focused on
relationships, rather than watching the clock. They have no problem being
“late” for an event if they are with family or friends, because the
relationship is what really matters. As a result, polychronic cultures have a
much less formal perception of time. They are not ruled by precise calendars
and schedules. Rather, “cultures that use the polychronic time system often
schedule multiple appointments simultaneously so keeping on schedule is an
impossibility.” </span><br />
<span>Polychronic cultures include Saudi Arabia, Egypt,
Mexico, the Philippines, India, and many in Africa.</span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
<b>Movement and body position:<o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
<b>Kinesics:<o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
<span>The term "kinesics" was first used (in
1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist who wished to study how people
communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and movement. Part of
Birdwhistell's work involved making films of people in social situations and
analyzing them to show different levels of communication not clearly seen
otherwise. Several other anthropologists, including Margaret Mead and Gregory
Bateson, also studied kinesics.</span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
<b>Haptics: Touching in communication:<o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
<span>A high five is an example of communicative touch.
Haptics is the study of touching as nonverbal communication, and haptic
communication refers to how people and other animals communicate via touching.</span><br />
<span><br /></span>
<span>Touches among humans that can be defined as
communication include handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips, hand),
back slapping, high fives, a pat on the shoulder, and brushing an arm. Touching
of oneself may include licking, picking, holding, and scratching. These
behaviors are referred to as "adapters" or "tells" and may
send messages that reveal the intentions or feelings of a communicator. The
meaning conveyed from touch is highly dependent upon the culture, the context
of the situation, the relationship between communicators, and the manner of
touch.</span><br />
<span>Touch is an extremely important sense for humans;
as well as providing information about surfaces and textures it is a component
of nonverbal communication in interpersonal relationships, and vital in
conveying physical intimacy. It can be both sexual (such as kissing) and
platonic (such as hugging or tickling).</span><br />
<span><br /></span>
<span>Touch is the earliest sense to develop in the
fetus. The development of an infant's haptic senses and how it relates to the
development of the other senses such as vision have been the target of much
research. Human babies have been observed to have enormous difficulty surviving
if they do not possess a sense of touch, even if they retain sight and hearing.
Babies who can perceive through touch, even without sight and hearing, tend to
fare much better. Touch can be thought of as a basic sense in that most life
forms have a response to being touched, while only a subset have sight and
hearing.</span><br />
<span>In chimpanzees the sense of touch is highly
developed. As newborns they see and hear poorly but cling strongly to their
mothers. Harry Harlow conducted a controversial study involving rhesus monkeys
and observed that monkeys reared with a "terry cloth mother," a wire
feeding apparatus wrapped in soft terry cloth that provided a level of tactile
stimulation and comfort, were considerably more emotionally stable as adults
than those with a mere wire mother.(Harlow,1958)</span><br />
<span><br /></span>
<span>Touching is treated differently from one country
to another and socially acceptable levels of touching vary from one culture to
another (Remland, 2009). In Thai culture, for example, touching someone's head
may be thought rude. Remland and Jones (1995) studied groups of people
communicating and found that touching was rare among the English (8%), the
French (5%) and the Dutch (4%) compared to Italians (14%) and Greeks (12.5%).</span><br />
<span>Striking, pushing, pulling, pinching, kicking,
strangling and hand-to-hand fighting are forms of touch in the context of
physical abuse. In a sentence like "I never touched him/her" or
"Don't you dare touch him/her," the term touch may be meant as a
euphemism for either physical abuse or sexual touching. </span><br />
<span>Stoeltje (2003) wrote about how Americans are
"losing touch" with this important communication skill. During a
study conducted by University of Miami School of Medicine, Touch Research
Institutes, American children were said to be more aggressive than their French
counterparts while playing at a playground. It was noted that French women
touched their children more.</span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
<b>Functions of nonverbal communication:<o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
Argyle (1970) put forward the hypothesis that
whereas spoken language is normally used for communicating information about
events external to the speakers, non-verbal codes are used to establish and
maintain interpersonal relationships. It is considered more polite or nicer to
communicate attitudes towards others non-verbally rather than verbally, for
instance in order to avoid embarrassing situations.</span><br />
<span>Argyle (1988) concluded there are five primary
functions of nonverbal bodily behavior in human communication:</span></span></div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: auto; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
</span><br />
</span><div class="Section10">
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Express emotions</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Express interpersonal attitudes</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->To accompany speech in managing the cues of
interaction between speakers and listeners</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Self-presentation of one’s personality</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Rituals (greetings)</span></span></div>
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: auto; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
</span><br />
</span><div class="Section11">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span>In regards to expressing interpersonal attitudes,
humans communicate interpersonal closeness through a series of nonverbal
actions known as immediacy behaviors. Examples of immediacy behaviors are
smiling, touching, open body positions, and eye contact. Cultures that display
these immediacy behaviors are considered high-contact cultures.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
<b>Interaction
of verbal and nonverbal communication:<o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
When communicating, nonverbal messages can
interact with verbal messages in six ways: repeating, conflicting,
complementing, substituting, regulating and accenting/moderating. Conflicting
Verbal and nonverbal messages within the same interaction can sometimes send
opposing or conflicting messages. A person verbally expressing a statement of
truth while simultaneously fidgeting or avoiding eye contact may convey a mixed
message to the receiver in the interaction. Conflicting messages may occur for
a variety of reasons often stemming from feelings of uncertainty, ambivalence,
or frustration. When mixed messages occur, nonverbal communication becomes the
primary tool people use to attain additional information to clarify the
situation; great attention is placed on bodily movements and positioning when
people perceive mixed messages during interactions<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
<b>Complementing</b>:</span><br />
<span><br /></span>
<span> Accurate
interpretation of messages is made easier when nonverbal and verbal
communications complement each other. Nonverbal cues can be used to elaborate
on verbal messages to reinforce the information sent when trying to achieve
communicative goals; messages have been shown to be remembered well when
nonverbal signals affirm the verbal exchange.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
<b>Substituting:<o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
<span><b><br /></b>
Nonverbal behavior is sometimes used as the sole
channel for communication of a message. People learn to identify facial
expressions, body movements, and body positioning as corresponding with
specific feelings and intentions. Nonverbal signals can be used without verbal
communication to convey messages; when nonverbal behavior does not effectively
communicate a message; verbal methods are used to enhance understanding.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span><br /></span>
<span>Nonverbal communication is the process of sending
and receiving messages from another person. These messages can be conveyed
through gestures, engagement, posture, and even clothing and hygiene. Nonverbal
communication can convey a very different message than a verbal conversation.
This can tell someone whether they are liked, interesting or hated. Nonverbal
communication can have meanings in objects as well. Certain articles in a
person’s life can say a lot about them and can sometimes even talk for them. A
person’s handwriting can also tell a lot about the way they can communicate
with others. Nonverbal communication can be easiest practiced when the two
communicators are face to face. The nonverbal aspect of communication is
easiest when the environment is right for all communicators involved, such as,
when the environment is right or the moment is right. Nonverbal communication
is an important aspect in any conversation skill people are practicing.
Nonverbal communication will inhibit someone to be able to tell other person
how they are really feeling without having to voice any opinions. People can
interpret body signals better than they can talk most of the time.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">What is language
change?</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="background-color: white;">Because
all language is systematic, the history of any language is the history of
change in its systems. By change, we mean a permanent alteration. Changes in
language may be systematic or sporadic, the addition of a vocabulary item to
name a new product, for example, is a sporadic change that has little impact on
the rest of the lexicon. Systematic changes, as the term suggests, affect an
entire system or subsystem of the languages. These changes may be either
conditioned or unconditioned. A conditioned systematic change is brought about
by context or environment, whether linguistic or extra linguistic. In simple
terms, all changes consist of a loss of something, a gain of something, or
both- a substitution of one thing for another. Both loss and gain occur in all
the subsystems of natural languages. Change occurs at different ways and times
within the subsystems of a language. A new loan word may be introduced and
widely accepted within a period of a few days, as with the Russian loan <i>sputnik</i>
in 1957. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">In
sum for all natural languages, change is both inevitable and constant; only
dead languages (languages with no native speakers) do not change because change
is constant and has always been so, there is no such thing as a “pure” or
“decadent” language or dialect. There are only different languages and
dialects, which arose in the first place only because all languages change.The
history of the English language, this, is the record of how its patterns and
rules have changed over the centuries. The history of English is not the
political history of its speakers, although their political history has
affected their language, sometimes dramatically, as was the case with the
Norman invasion of <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 0.25in;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">England in 1066. Nor is the
history of the English language , same as the history of English literature,
even though the language is the raw material of the literature. Indeed, the
nature of any language influences its literature and imposes certain limitation
on it. For example, quantitative verse is impossible in English today because
English does not distinguish long and short syllables. Compared to other
languages. English is difficult to rhyme in because of its stress patterns and
great variety of syllable endings. On the other hand, English, unlike French,
lends itself easily to alliteration .Any language with a literary tradition and
extensive. Literacy will be affected by that literature. Grammatical structures
originating in writing are transferred to the spoken language. Vocabulary items
and phrases introduced in literature enter the spoken language. The written
tradition tends to give rise to concepts of correctness and to act as a
conservative influence on the spoken language<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 0.25in;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">WHY
DOES LANGUAGE CHANGE?<o:p></o:p></span></b></span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="background-color: white;">In any science, the hardest
question to answer is why? In many cases, the question is unanswerable. From one
point of view, it is strange that human beings speak so many languages and that
these languages undergo any changes at all. Other `human activities are
identical and unchanging everywhere- all human beings smile, cry, scream in
terror, sleep, drink, and walk in essentially the someway. Why should they
differ in speech, the one aspect of behavior that is uniquely humane? The
answer is that, whereas the capacity to learn language is innate, the
particular Language that anyone uses is learned. That is, the ability to learn
languages is universal and unchanging but the languages themselves are diverse
and constantly changing. Given that
learned behavior can and often does change, what are the forces that trigger
change? One explanation for linguistic change is the principle of least
effort. According to this principle,
language changes because speakers are “sloppy” and simplify their speech in
various ways. Accordingly, abbreviated. Forms like <i>math </i>for <i>mathematics
</i>and <i>plane</i> for <i>airplane</i> arise. Going to becomes <i>gonna </i>because the latter has two fewer
phonemes to articulate. On the morphological level, speaker’s use <i>showed</i> instead of<i> shown </i>as the past participle of <i>show </i>so that they will have one less irregular verb form to
remember. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 0.25in;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The principle of least effort is
an adequate explanation for many isolated changes, such as the reduction of <i>God
be with you</i> to <i>good-bye</i>, and it probably plays an important role in
most systematic changes, such as the loss of inflection in English.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBlockText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Another explanation for language change is analogy.
Under analogical change, two things or rules that were once different become
identical or at least more alike. The principle analogy is closely related to
the principle of least effort. Analogy is one way of achieving least effort. By
analogy, a speaker reasons, usually unconsciously, that if A is like B in
several respects, then it must be like B in other respects. If beans is plural
noun naming a kind of vegetable and has the singular form bean, then peas,
which also names a kink of vegetable, must also be a plural and must have the
singular form pea.(Historically, peas or Pease, was an uncountable singular
noun; if analogy can operate at all levels of a language. On the semantic
level, many people use the word livid to mean “bright”, especially bright red,
as in anger. Though historically livid means “pale”, its sound association with
vivid has led to analogical semantic change. Even spelling may be affected by
analogy. The word delight historically contained no- -g h – but acquired these
letters by analogy with such rhyming words as light, fright, sight, and might<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBlockText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="background-color: white;">In
general, the more common a word or construction, the less susceptible it is to
change by analogy. Less frequently used words or constructions are more likely
to be altered to fit the patterns of more common ones. Thus the verb to be
remains wildly irregular in English because it is learned so early and used so
often. But the relatively uncommon verb <i>thrive,</i> once conjugated as <i>thrive,
throve, thriven,</i> is well on its way to becoming a weak (regular) verb. Still
another explanation frequently affected for language changes is that children
learn their native language imperfectly from their elders. Imperfect learning
is surely one factor, but it cannot explain all changes. For permanent
linguistic change to occur, all children of a given speech <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Community
would, all children of a given speech community would have to make exactly the
same mistakes. This intuitively seems unlikely. Further, there is ample
evidence that linguistic change occurs beyond the years of childhood. Many
adults, consciously or unconsciously alter their speech in various ways,
changing even their phonology.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -27pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Internal
and external pressure for change:<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="background-color: white;">In discussing the history of a
language, it is often useful to distinguish <i>outer</i>
history (or external history) from inner history (or internal history). The
outer history is the events that have happened to the speakers of the language
leading to changes in the language. For example, the Norman invasion brought
French-speaking conquerors to <st1:country-region w:st="on">England</st1:country-region>
and made French the official language of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">England</st1:place></st1:country-region> for about three hundred
years. As a result, the English language was profoundly affected. The inner
history of a language is the change that occurs within the language itself,
change that cannot be attributed directly to external forces. For instances,
many words that were pronounced as late as the ninth century with a /a/ sound
similar to that of father are today pronounced with a long o: old English ham, <i>gat,halig;</i>and<i>
sar</i> correspond to modern <i>home,</i> <i>goat, holy,</i> and <i>sore.</i>
There is no evidence of an external cause for this change and we can only
assume that it resulted from pressures within the language system itself.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Among external pressures for
language change, foreign contacts are the most obvious. They may be instigated
by outright military invasion, by commercial relations, by immigration, or by
the social prestige of a foreign language. The Viking invasion of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">England</st1:place></st1:country-region> during
the ninth and tenth centuries added, not surprisingly, many new lexical items
to English. Less obviously, they contributed to (though were not the sole cause
of) the loss of inflection in English because, although Norse and English were
similar in many ways, their inflectional endings were quite different one way
of facilitating communication between speakers of the two languages would have
been to drop the inflectional endings entirely
<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span></span></div>
<h1>
<span color="windowtext" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background-color: white;">DEMARCATING THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH<o:p></o:p></span></span></h1>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-color: white;">Although linguistic change is a slow but unceasing
process, like a slow-motion movie. It is impracticable to try to describe the
changes in this way; instead, we must present them as a series of still
photographs, noting what has changed in the interval between one photograph and
the next. This procedure fails to capture the real dynamism of linguistic
change, but it does have the advantage of allowing us to examine particular
aspects in detail and at a leisurely pace before they disappear. The history of
the English language is normally presented in four such still photographs -Old
English, Middle English, Early Modern English, and Present-Day English.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span><span style="background-color: white;">The dividing
lines between one period 0f English and the next are not sharp and dramatic: The
English people did not go to bed on December 31, 1099, speaking old English and
wake up on January 1, 1100, speaking Middle English, Nevertheless, the changes
that had accumulated by the year 1100 were sufficiently great to justify a
different designation for the language after that date.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span><br /></span>
<span>Old English (OE) is that stage of
the language used between AD 450 and 1100. The period from 1100 to 1500 is
Middle English (ME), the period between 1500 and 1800 is Early Modern English (EMnE),
and the period since 1800 is present-Day English (PDE) for those familiar with
English history, these dates may look suspiciously close to dates of important
political and social events in England. The beginning of ME is just a few years
after the Norman Conquest, the beginning of EMnE parallels the English
Renaissance and the introduction of printing in to <st1:country-region w:st="on">England</st1:country-region>, and the starting date for
present-day English is on the heels.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: .75in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0.75in 10pt 27pt; text-indent: 9pt;">
<span><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: page; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
</div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-13038167109173732242013-06-11T20:19:00.002+06:002013-09-13T13:03:10.642+06:00More on “Episode in the life of an Author”...<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b>“Episode
in the life of an Author” as an Absurdist Farce:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
theatre of the Absurd is an experimental theatrical style which came into
prominence after World War II. The term ‘Absurd’ as applied to this moment
carries the sense given to it by the thinkers. All these writers feel that man
is “Out of Harmony” and man always finds himself in exile in a meaningless
universe. The term ‘Absurd’ is also applied to the modern sense of human
purposelessness in the universe without meaning or value.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
“Theatre of the Absurd” is a term coined by Hungarian-born critic Martin
Esslin, who made it the title of his 1962 book on the subject. The term refers
to a particular type of play which first became popular during the 1950s and
1960s and which presented on stage the philosophy articulated by French
philosopher Albert Camus in his 1942 essay, <i>The Myth of Sisyphus</i>, in
which he defines the human condition as basically meaningless.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
One
of the most important aspects of absurd drama is its distrust of language as a
means of communication. Language, it seems to say, has become nothing but a
vehicle for conventionalized, stereotyped, meaningless exchanges.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
Theatre of the Absurd constituted first and foremost an onslaught on language,
showing it as a very unreliable and insufficient tool of communication. Absurd
drama uses conventionalized speech, clichés, slogans and technical jargon,
which it distorts, parodies and breaks down. By ridiculing conventionalized and
stereotyped speech patterns, the Theatre of the Absurd tries to make people
aware of the possibility of going beyond everyday speech conventions and communicating
more authentically.”<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b>Episode
in the life of an Author </b>is
an excellent example of Jean Anouilh’s individualistic style that is eminently
entertaining and irresistibly theatrical in form. It is humorous in its
absurdity and its challenges the traditional notions of plot, character
development and resolution of conflict. It has characters who enter, leave and
enter again as they seek order in their lives from the art of author. They seem
dependent on him to rescue them from the turmoil of their lives. Some are green
with envy of the earlier characters which the author created because they live
in a play which is ordered. In this sense, they want him to write stories of
their lives and, indeed, the play can be seen as the struggle an author goes
through as a piece is written. It is as absurd drama. <o:p></o:p><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">This play is a typical example of a ‘Farce’, a sub genre of
the 'Theatre of the Absurd'. The theatre of absurd propagates the philosophy of
life being an absurd phenomenon and ‘Farce’ is a low grade comedy mainly aiming
for creating scenes of laughter by creating humorous scenes and wits. Overall
such play does not have any sequence of events or logical order of happenings.
To get a more clear picture of whether the play is a farce or not and whether
it belongs to the Theatre of Absurd or not we have to review the important
features of absurd drama. Following are the main features of absurd drama:</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It
has unusual plot, theme, dialogues and actions which makes it different from
other traditional plays.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
events, actions are illogical, senseless, often useless, confusing, absurd and
totally beyond the understanding of the common audience.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Often
situations are funny absurd and often there is a lack of sequence of events<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
characters are often caught in a chaotic situation and find it very difficult
to understand its place in the universe. They are often confused and under lots
of meaningless pressures and tensions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 40.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Often
the inadequacy of language for communication is also exposed and it is shown
that language is an unreliable and insufficient tool of communication.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We find all the above mentioned features are prominently
present and making the main construct of the drama. Thus we are safe to say
that the play is a very suitable example of ‘Farce’ and it belongs to the
theatre of absurd.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Unconventional plot, theme & dialogues:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br />
The play follows unconventional plot structures,
theme and dialogues. Neither the scenes nor the time is put properly in the
play. Conventional norms have been forgone to purposefully comment on the
purposelessness and the meaninglessness of human existence. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b>The events in this play are not logically connected to each
other, and to an average audience, meaningless.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->The arrangement and the timing of events are
haphazard. For instance Ardele comes into the scene irregularly at her own
discretion and we do not know whether she is present in the house at other
times when the author in engaged with other characters. Her irregular
interruptions make no sense at all. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->The interview is cut short several times with
interventions from other characters but when they continue again they begin as
if they have progressed a lot actually when nothing has been achieved.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->The phone calls especially Gustave’s, consume a
significant amount of time. The anecdotes he relates to the author has no
relevancy to the author, he seems least bothered about what Gustave is saying.
Nonetheless from the other end we have Gustave putting his heart and soul in
explaining everything he has on his table.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->The maid’s pregnancy is one that is very difficult to
understand.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b>The actions of the characters are senseless, useless and
absurd.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->The author is bewildered, troubled, and strangely
threatened by a large number of visitors who each bring a bag of problems to
him.. He has no control over what is happening in his life or his house. The
final scene where he is shouting for everyone to be calm, while he himself is
losing control shows him as a true absurd protagonist. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->The arrival of the Plumbers and the manner they
check the Leak by feeling the wall. They are not being able to find the actual leakage
and when they say they found it, it was too late to be mend. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Distrust of language as a means of communication;<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
One of the most important aspects of absurd drama is its
distrust of language as a means of communication. Language, it seems to say,
has become nothing but a vehicle for conventionalized, stereotyped, meaningless
exchanges. Language
in Episode in the Life an Author too is shown as an unreliable and insufficient
tool of communication. The broken dialogues and conversation between Ardele and
the unknown woman (Madame pripon Minet), the interview between Madam Bessarabo
and the Author, the telephonic conversation between the mother and Madame
pripon Minet for a flat (both in need of one) are some examples of this type of
use of language. In this way, conventional speech seems to act as a barrier
between the characters rather than serve as a means of communication.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Plot Summary of
the Play:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
author and his wife Ardele are having a furious argument at the beginning of
the play. They appear in dressing gowns early in the morning in the author’s
study. The entire play is set in the author’s study. Everybody comes to the
author with a problem, expecting him to do something about it. From the
beginning till the end, we see the author in his dressing gown and he spends
the entire time in his study.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
author and his wife Ardele have been married for twelve years. They seem to be
arguing about a letter that the author came across in the wife’s closet. The
letter was addressed as “My own love” and the author accuses his wife of having
an affair. The author presumes that the letter must be written by a man because
the letter seems to address from a masculine perspective. She accuses the
husband of rummaging through her drawers and her cupboards, and humiliating
her. Ardele tells her husband that she wants to go back to her mother; the
author reminds her that her mother died in 1922. Ardele accuses him of making
her miserable by reminding of her mother’s death. She even tells him that she
will go and live with her illiterate sister. She tells him that he must be
happy to get rid of her, so that he can go and be unfaithful to her. Slowly,
Ardele twists the situation to her advantage and accuses him of waiting for an
opportunity to have an affair.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
first visitor to the house is Madame Bessarabo, who has come from Rumania. She
is a journalist and is accompanied by a photographer. She has come to interview
the author about his play La Marguerite and his opinion of love. She assures
him that she will be true to his words and will not betray him. La Marguerite
was staged in Rumania and had three successful shows. The press and the people
were in unanimous agreement that it was a great play. However, the press and
the people also felt that the play was bit hard and that is why she wants to
know what the author thought of love. The author tells her that the title of
the play is ambiguous.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
second visitors are the two plumbers. They have come to check the leak and
repair the leak in the house. They inform the author that they will check in
the attic first and move down. After sometime, the maid comes in to inform the
author that the plumbers would like to cut off the water supply.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
caller is a woman, who calls over the phone. She has dialed the number Jasmine
one two one two, and seems to be looking for her ex-husband, Leon. She asks the
author if he is Leon. The author replies that he is not. The woman wants to
talk to her husband regarding a flat. She wants him to look for a flat for her
because she will have to vacate her old place. The woman again calls the author
the second time and enquires why her husband is not on the line.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
There
is another caller and he is the author’s friend Gustave. He is a writer as
well. It seems Gustave is having difficulty coming up with an appropriate
ending for his play. His play is about a woman with the boas, a beautiful woman
who falls in love with a man in a train. It seems Paul Zed, a producer has
bought his play and wants to make it into a movie. Liliane Tresor had agreed to
play the part of a beautiful woman. On second thought, the actress had refused
because she does not want to die in the end. Moreover, the producer had asked
him to change the ending and make it into a happy ending. The friend is
frustrated and says that since he is the writer he can do what he likes with
it. He says, “Is life supposed to be a picnic?” The author is busy with the
interview but the friend expects him to solve his problem.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
There
is another visitor and she is the author’s mother. The mother also appears
bearing her problem and expects her son to solve her problem. There is a bit of
confrontation between the mother and the son. The mother wants the author to
look for a flat for her, since she may have to give up her old flat in case she
loses the lawsuit. The author makes his mother sit down and places a paper in
her hands, and tells her that he has got lot of things to do.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
author again talks to Madame B. He states that he believes in Love. Madame B is
happy and immediately wants to send a cable to Rumania. The two plumbers enter
the room and check for any leak in the house. They move about the room in
silence and leave through another door without speaking a word. The author
states that man is alone in the world.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
author’s friend Gustave calls again. Gustave tells the author about the new
development with his play. It seems Liliane Tresor; the actress has agreed to
die of consumption and not of any other disease. But the objection has come
from the producer now. The producer does not want the actress to die; instead
he wants the actress to join a convent and become a nun in the end. The producer
thinks that death would be a depressing ending. The author again tells his
friend that he is busy and occupied and to call him later.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
next visitor is La Surette. He is a tramp and an ex-soldier. Just a week ago,
the author had given him seven thousand francs. Now he has come with another
demand. He wants a pair of boots, and money to pay for the gas company. We are
also made known that during the war; La Surette had helped the author. He had
lent his bayonet to the author in time for the parade as the author had
misplaced his. Therefore, the author was saved from being court martialled. On
this small favour that La Surette had done to the author, he wants many more favors
from the author. The author refuses to give any more money to him, but on
second thought helps him.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
woman calls again for the third time. Ardele appears again to ask the author
who will look after the cats when she’s gone. She has changed her clothes into
and outdoor one and is wearing an outrageous hat. She accuses the author of
being heartless because he says that the cats will be looked after by the maid.
She tells him that she is leaving and that the cats are miaowing because she is
leaving.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
There
is another visitor to the author’s house. It is the housing inspector. He has
come to check on the author. The interview is still continuing when they are
disturbed by the housing inspector. The housing inspector is wearing black
dress and informs the author that he has a requisition order for surplus
accommodation. The housing inspector keeps taking notes. He asks Madame B, if
she is a family. She says no. The housing inspector writes “Premises occupied
by foreign émigrés”. He notices the photographer also and enquires if the
photographer is also one of the families. He furiously takes notes. After that
he declares that the author will get tenant in his house, brigadier with eight
children. Ardele goes near the housing inspector and informs him that she is
leaving and he can send in some other families as well.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
At
that moment the mother interrupts. She has come across an advertisement about a
flat and asks the author’s opinion regarding the flat. When the housing
inspector hears this, he again takes notes. The author tells his mother to keep
quiet. At that moment, La Surette interjects by saying that gas can wait but he
needs the boots immediately.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
housing inspector interrogates the author about the first floor, second floor
and the third floor.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
author finishes telling the inspector that there is no third floor. At that
moment, the plumbers come bounding in and tells that the leak is in the two
empty rooms on the third floor, and that it runs rights across some more rooms
and ends in a big room with toy soldiers. The inspector is excited and he goes
up the stairs to check. The author is dismayed when the inspector goes up the staircase.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
La
Surette again intervenes and tells the author how he had helped the author
during the war. The author hurls his boots to La Surette. La Surette
immediately puts on the boots and talks about dignity.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
The mother again bugs him about the flat. Ardele accuses the
author of having an affair and demands to know the name of the woman. The author
is confounded. He has no idea what his wife is talking about. She accuses her
husband of looking for an excuse to have an affair. She tells him “why should
you choose today to discover I’m deceiving you unless you’re deceiving me?” The
author holds her arms and tells her to keep calm.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
She
again shouts at him saying he is physically molesting her.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
La
Surette again pokes his head through the door and asks the author what the
author has decided about the gas.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
author tells everybody to keep calm. At that moment, the woman calls again. The
author tells her that he is Leon and why shouldn’t he be Leon. The woman tells
him that she needs to look for a flat. Immediately he tells his mother to talk
to the woman about the flat. The mother talks to this woman on the phone. It is
quite comical to see the two women talking. Both of them have no idea and there
is so much of confusion. Each one thinks that the other one has a flat. The
mother is excited with the prospect of finding a flat and flies out of the
door. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
When
one visitor leaves the house, another comes in by the name of Gontran. Gontran
is a giant of a man. He has come with some problems. It seems he left his wife
Lucienne three months ago for another woman. But now he is agitated because
when he calls up his wife, there is no response from his wife. He doubts that his
wife must be having an affair. It is quite comical see this giant man, crying
for his wife. He says “She’s deceiving me, old man; she’s been deceiving me
ever since I left her!” .He begins to sob like a child and faints in the
author’s arm.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
Meanwhile,
we see Ardele creating havoc with the vases in the house. She goes on a
rampage, breaks down the vases and pulls down pictures and laughs hysterically.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
author yells on the top of his voice saying “let’s be calm”.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
His
friend dials again and hangs up the phone in anger because the author tells him
to call again later. He has called again to tell the author about the brilliant
ending he came up with.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
As the
author hangs up the phone, Ardele comes accusing him. She accuses him if he was
talking to his girlfriend. When the author goes into the kitchen, she calls up
the telephone operator and enquires about the last caller. The operator gives
the woman’s number. Here is another comical scene. We hear Ardele talking to
this unknown woman and accusing her of trying to steal her husband. The woman
in turn accuses Ardele of trying to steal her husband. They go on accusing each
other.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
While
the two women are fighting over the phone, we see the author dragging La
Surette by the collar. The author finds La Surette’s behavior with the maid
disgusting. He shouts at the maid to stop her crying. In the play, the maid is
seen crying from the beginning till the end. Now we know the reason for her
crying. La Surette has not only comforted, but has made the maid pregnant, and
that is why the maid has been crying the whole time. The author tries to calm
down and tells everybody to keep calm.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
At
that moment Madame B reappears with her photographer. They were in another room
the whole time. When she sees the author in a state she thinks that the author
has gone mad. Thus instructs her photographer to take his picture. The author
shouts at her to leave. But she refuses to do so, instead takes some more of
the author’s picture.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
This
inspector reappears and tells that the author has twelve rooms to spare. He
tells the author that he will install one brigadier and two new recruits in the
author’s house. On top of that some old age pensioners will also be put in the
author’s house. The author keeps chanting “I am quite calm. Quite calm! I am
becoming more and more calm” Madame Bessarabo takes some more of the Author’s
picture.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
The
plumbers reappear and shout that everybody has to take cover and take care of
oneself. They say that they have found the leak, but something has gone wrong
and there is nothing they can do about it.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
Water
starts falling from the ceiling in a deluge. Everybody runs around in a panic.
There is again another caller, and it is the friend. He starts telling the
author about the ending of his play.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
Meanwhile
Ardele enters the room carrying a pistol in her hand and starts shooting
blindly. The author has to take cover not only from the water cascading from
the ceiling, but also from his wife’s bullet and at the same time trying to
protect Gontran’s body. The author interrupts by saying that he prefers a happy
ending. The friend gets angry and shouts at the author saying that a lot of
water will flow under the bridge before her calls the author again. Ardele
fires her last bullet and screams.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
She
is worried that she might have shot her husband. She falls into her husband’s
arms and asks him if he is hurt and faints in her husband’s arms. The woman
calls again. The play ends when the ceiling crashes onto the floor.<o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
funny scenes in the play:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">t</span><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">he opening scene funny
argument between the Author and his wife Ardele over a trivial issue of letter
in which the wife threatens to leave and the author laughs nastily.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Madam
Bessarabo talking with the Author flatteringly and appearing as if she likes
everything that the Author says or does.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele
appearance on the stage in a bathing robe and charging the Author for
intentionally cutting off the water supply without verifying the fact.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
woman calling repeatedly over phone and claiming that the Author was her first
husband, jasmine one two one two.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Author’s
mother and the woman talking over phone and discussing about the apartment
(both in need of one).<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele
talking angrily with the woman over phone thinking that she was Author’r
girlfriend.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ardele’s
seriousness, anger and frustration while she was talking with the Author about
the cat.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Housing Inspector visiting and noting everything that he heard without checking
out the relevance.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
scene when the Author is having argument with La Surette.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
scene when Gontran and Ardele argue about Lea.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gontran
sobbing like a child and fainting in the arms of the Author.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Plumbers
working stupidly and spoiling the whole thing rather than repairing the leak.<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-transform: uppercase;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
scene of Ardele firing at the Author blindly and the Author frantically dozing
the bullet and the water talking over the phone and trying to save Gontran too. <span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-51333627843038706412013-05-28T19:53:00.003+06:002014-08-20T15:43:44.258+06:00Short Story "Bluffing"...<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-family: DejaVuSans-Bold; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: DejaVuSans-Bold;">“Bluffing”</span></b><b><i><span style="font-family: DejaVuSans-BoldOblique; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: DejaVuSans-BoldOblique;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgV4Zw3kOYJZiiotl5vfizM4kpzTTtkf7tUf1hI1amoXZchHEg-cONii4IKbvojdq3tn8-2rBay1nNA-JlVLmUYmAMG5D0d2oSjzGG7rbeAXbBCw2oiSaThHnckawCDqf6_g3R8esNMUFs/s1600/download+(1).jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgV4Zw3kOYJZiiotl5vfizM4kpzTTtkf7tUf1hI1amoXZchHEg-cONii4IKbvojdq3tn8-2rBay1nNA-JlVLmUYmAMG5D0d2oSjzGG7rbeAXbBCw2oiSaThHnckawCDqf6_g3R8esNMUFs/s1600/download+(1).jpg" /></a></div>
<br /></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Genre: </span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Contemporary Realistic Fiction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1in;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Setting:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> The story has been set in and around Jasper National
Hospital and Jasper National Park.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1in;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Characters: </span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Gabriella (Biology Teacher).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1in;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Liam (A Tourist Guide).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1in;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Author: </span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Gail Helgason.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">‘Bluffing’ deals
with the relationship of two twenty – something people and an encounter they
have with a grizzly bear in Canada’s Jasper National Park. The story provides
excellent examples of the use of flashback and foreshadowing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The story
consists of five scenes, which alternate from the present, where Gabriella is
waiting to see Liam in the hospital, to the past scenes set three weeks earlier
at a remote lake in Canada’s Jasper National Park. Much of what happens at the
lake is foreshadowed in earlier scenes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Theme of the Story:<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Commitment in family life and
adult relationship is the most prominent theme of the story. It also presents a
picture of degrading and weakening commitment in relationship and family life
in the western culture and society. Besides it hints towards the inherent
dangers in trekking and hiking and indirectly warns the reader not to venture
on such expeditions unprepared. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The language is modern, the characters
realistic, and the style is contemporary.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Technique used:</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Flashback
& Foreshadowing.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Flashback:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A
device that shifts the narrative from the present to the past, usually to
reveal a change in character or illustrate an important point.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A
device that allows the writer to present events that happened before the time
of the current narration or the current events in the fiction. Flashback
techniques include memories, dreams, stories of the past told by characters, or
even authorial sovereignty. (That is, the author might simply say, "But
back in Tom's youth. . . .") Flashback is useful for exposition, to fill
in the reader about a character or place, or about the background to a
conflict.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Advantages:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Shows a change
in character or situation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Builds suspense.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Illustrates an
important point.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Makes the story
interesting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Disadvantages:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Makes the scenes
in the story unclear.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Creates
confusion in the minds of the readers. The readers may lose track.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Foreshadowing:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">It
refers to plot technique in which a writer plans clues that hints at what is
going to happen later in the plot. Foreshadowing is used to arouse reader’s
curiosity, build suspense, and help prepare the reader to accept events that
occur later in the story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Advantages:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Arouses
curiosity and builds suspense.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Prepares the
readers to accept events that occur later in the story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Disadvantages:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Spoils the order
of the story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Confuses the
reader.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Most often the
clues of foreshadowing are not clear.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Examples of
Flashback used in the story:<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
the hospital when medicinal smell reminds Gabriella of the homemade cleaning solution
she prepared at Liam’s insistence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">While
waiting in the hospital couch, she remembers the morning three weeks ago when
she and Liam had taken a hike to the lake.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">When
she sees the Merlin from the hospital window it reminds her of how she had
taught Liam to spot wildlife at the Pyramid Bench. Etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Examples of Foreshadow
used in the story:<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
the beginning when Gabriella is running to the Jasper Hospital, the reader
doesn’t know why she is going there it arouses curiosity in the reader to read further
to know more.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
partial imprints of expensive trademark left by Liam’s boots on the ground
leads us to understand that he is extravagant.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">“That
wasn’t the same as telling the whole story. How could she, when it still wasn’t
clear?” It gives the readers a clue that there is something believed in the
story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Liam’s
bluff to the two young hikers about the Grizzly. Etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Irony:<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A mode of expression, through words
(verbal irony) or events (irony of situation), conveying a reality different
from and usually opposite to appearance or expectation. A writer may say the
opposite of what he means, create a reversal between expectation and its
fulfillment, or give the audience knowledge that a character lacks, making the
character's words have meaning to the audience not perceived by the character.
In verbal irony, the writer's meaning or even his attitude may be different
from what he says:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Conflict:</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Gabriella versus
Liam - Man versus Man<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Gabriella versus
Gabriella - Man versus Man [Self]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Liam and Gabriella
versus the Grizzly - Man versus Nature<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Point of view</span></i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Third
person limited. It is limited to Gabriella and anything known about Liam is
filtered through Gabriella’s perceptions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Plot summary of the Story:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The story primarily deals with the theme of commitment in relationship and in family life. The story is about Liam and Gabriella who are staying together in relationship. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Gabriella and Liam are living together in the same rented house, though not married. Gabriella is a teacher who can’t afford to rent the house all by her. The rent is high and for time being, she can make both ends meet as, Liam is sharing the rent with her. However, Liam’s stay with her is uncertain as most of the time he is away on hiking expeditions. Moreover, the time has come for Gabriella to sign a lease as a tenant for one more year. The land owner holds her responsible for signing the lease. She needs commitment from Liam to stay with her and share the rent for another one year at least. She is hesitant to ask him directly in the crowded place where they are staying. Gabriella wants some privacy where she can freely talk to Liam and know his further plan. So she arranges a hike with Liam to Jasper Lake.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Liam is unpredictable and a difficult person to understand. Gabriella on the other hand is committed in the beginning and wants to continue her living with Liam. But it is one sided. Their relationship can’t be strong unless there is commitment from both the sides. At time Gabriella feels Liam is coming closer to her through his activities such as giving astonishing surprises for her. She is encouraged further when Liam consents to go for the hike along with her for the day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The day they start hiking towards the lake, everything seems to be conducive. As they mount upward towards the lake they are thrilled by the sight of the valley down below. Gabriella teaches Liam about wild life, they see on the way. Liam, though an egoist starts learning a great deal about wild life, the day he associated himself with Gabriella. The duo have few amazing experiences as they ascend: Liam bluffs and discourages tourists the young tourists form going to the lake. The youngsters are frightened when they are informed that the lake is infested with Grizzly bears. This was the false alarm given by Liam as he didn’t want to be disturbed by anyone, once they reach the lake.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Both reach the lake by noon and settle down for lunch. Liam gives a pleasant surprise to Gabriella by taking out some scrumptious food items from his lunch pack. Gabriella to intends to surprise him with egg sandwiches, she has brought. Gabriella is encouraged by all the favorable things she experiences at this juncture. Just the, Liam discloses his plan to go to South Mexico along with Clive for three months during winter. This news shattered her dreams of signing the lease accord. Gabriella starts feeling helpless and is angry. Annoyed, she simply walks away without uttering a word to Liam. At one instance she turns back and spots Liam pursuing her. Gabriella doesn’t pay any heed to him and keeps on walking until she comes face to face with a Grizzly bear standing just twenty paces away. Meanwhile Liam unaware of the situation approaches from behind and calls her.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Gabriella cautions him not to come forward but to go back as slowly as possible. She freezes in the same spot. The Grizzly watches her movements. Gabriella knows that if she runs, the Grizzly will come and pounce upon her. At no cost she could afford to do this. Liam on the other hand, didn’t listen to her and starts retreating. The bear instead of pouncing on Gabriella started pursuing Liam. She on the other hand thought the bear was coming straight for her. Gabriella fell on the ground and bundled herself in order to protect her vital organs, where upon she only felt the bear hurtling past her. The rest of the story remained unknown to her until she met Liam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Later she came to know that Liam had been attacked by the bear. He had been airlifted and hospitalized. No major damage had been done to his vital organs. However his face was badly bruised with plenty of cuts all over his face and body. Liam was under medication for three weeks. After three weeks when Gabriella when to the hospital to meet Liam, his bandage was to be removed. Finally, when Gabriella sees Liam’s face she was horrified by the sight and was unable to look straight into his face. Liam puts a false smile on his face and says that had sacrificed his life for her. Gabriella on the other hand feels he is bluffing. She too keeps smiling at him as long as she was present there. This she does in order to make him believe that inwardly she is hurt and had no faith in him. Gabriella pays backs Liam’s insincerity by simply smiling as a mere formality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The whole story boils down to the commitment, sincerity, and attitude of young couple before marriage. Commitment plays an important role in the life of young couples. In this story we don’t see any commitment either on the part of Liam or Gabriella. Such couples can never make their marital life meaningful.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Themes Explored in the Story:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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</div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Commitment in family life and adult relationship is the most prominent theme of the story. It also presents a picture of degrading and weakening commitment in relationship and family life in the western culture and society. Besides it hints towards the inherent dangers in trekking and hiking and indirectly warns the reader not to venture on such expeditions unprepared.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Justification of the Title:</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Literally, Bluffing means and act of pretension and trying to show something different from the reality. In other words it can also be explained as deceiving someone by pretending. A careful analysis of the story reveals that it is full with bluffing. Both the major characters – Liam and Gabriella – are bluffing to each other in the story .Gabriella bluffed Liam by saying that she liked hiking in order to take him to lake so that she could discuss about the lease renewal. On the way to Lake Liam bluffed those two young men by telling the false story about the Grizzly which had killed an Elk. We find Gabriella bluffing to the safety specialists though she herself was not very clear about all that had happened at the lake. Again we find her bluffing to some extent when she says that she was coming to the hospital to see Liam every day. Knowing that she was a teacher and that Liam could not have been sleeping all three weeks we cannot fully believe that she was coming every day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">And finally we find Liam bluffing to Gabriella that he had run away to gain the attention of the grizzly and save her from the attack. We cannot be fully convinced whether he is bluffing or telling the truth. Maybe he did as he claimed or maybe he is simply bluffing. But we see the height of bluffing when we find Gabriella pulling her chair close to Liam, hold his hand and give him a broad smile though she is finds it very difficult to believe what Liam had said and also to bear the sight of his horribly scarred face. Thus we see that the whole story is filled with bluffing of various kinds and degrees and hence the title of this story is very much suitable to its content and theme. </span></div>
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Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com15tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-42045569332234980182013-05-28T19:51:00.001+06:002015-10-07T10:14:52.999+06:00Drama for BHSEC....<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">“Episode in the Life of an Author” - One Act Play<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Form: </span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> One Act Play<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Genre:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Drama<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sub-genre:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Absurdist
farce (with features of the ‘theatre of the absurd’)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Author: </span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Jean Anouilh (Anh’ wee)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Nationality:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> French <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Gender:
</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Male
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Birth:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> June 23, 1910
Bordeaux, France <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Death:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> October 3, 1987
Lausanne, Switzerland <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">The play is classified by the author under:</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pieces roses</span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">
(theme explored with sparkling wit and comedy).<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">‘The play tries to substantiate the view that ‘the primary
function of the theatre was, is and forever will be entertainment.’<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rhetorical Devices used in the play:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Satire, Irony, Symbols, Wit & Comedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Social values explored:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Love, Marital life (marriage),
Friendship, Family bond, other relationships,jobs & ethics.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">SYMBOLS USED IN THE PLAY:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Symbols
play an integral part of communicating the writer's vision to the play, in
Episode in the Life of the Author the following symbols are used:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">False Nose<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">All
the characters in the play are wearing false noses and this is an indispensable
part of the play. The false noses here symbolize the absurd nature of the play.
More than anything Anouilh has used the false noses for all characters to show
the purpose of absurd plays. The primary function of the theatre is
entertainment and false noses actually justify this purpose and add a comic
element to the characters. It also symbolizes that human beings no matter what
they consider themselves to be, after all they are just players on the stage of
the world and that their purposes of living are often falsified through the
choice of their own lenses. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The Leak<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
leak in the play is symbolic of two important elements. Absurd plays often
contradict the notion that there is always a reason behind the occurrence of
things and events in our everyday life. The leak is used to symbolize that the
way events and incidents happen sometimes are beyond logic and a rational
explanation. It also highlights the power of myths and miracles that impact our
life in an inexplicable way.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The Boots<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">La
Surette approaches the author for the money to pay for the gas bill but later
he places more importance on the boots than the money. The boots here symbolize
the absurd desires of human beings. Human beings have unlimited desires and
wants but there is a lack of rational explanation for these desires. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">We
do not know why we want some things and we often do not know why we do not want
some other things in life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The Weeping Maid<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Leonie,
the maid is a minor character who is a member of the author’s house. She ushers
all the visitors and the guests who come with their problems to the author. But
all the while, she is found to be weeping throughout the play. A certain degree
of suspense is maintained by Anouilh, until towards the end when we are
informed that she had been weeping because she had become pregnant. Both the
Author and Ardele are oblivious of her pregnancy and pay no heed to her
sufferings. She is left on her own to fight her own battles. Her weeping is
symbolic of the physical and mental sufferings that people go through in the
walks of their daily life. It is also suggestive of how other people desert us
in times of distress to face the problems of our own life although we have been
living under the same roof. Poor people like the maid are exploited by powerful
men; their woes unheard, their pains undivided and left to strive and struggle
on their own.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Rockwell","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 16.1px;">The Falling Picture<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
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<span lang="EN-IN">The falling picture symbolizes:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">The wife’s temperament: Whenever Ardele leaves the study slamming the door, the picture falls down. It happens from the beginning of the play whenever she quarrels with her husband. The falling picture here shows that Ardele is a short tempered lady.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">The problems of marital life: It clearly reveals in the play the theme that if the husband and the wife do not have mutual trust then there will be quarrels and unrest in the house.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">The author’s character as a patient man: In the play Ardele addresses the Author angrily for three times and on all these occasion her slamming the door makes the picture to fall down. Whenever it happens the Author calmly picks it up and hangs it back without showing ill temper towards his wife. This clearly shows that the Author is a very patient, cool and composed man with immense tolerance. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">To add a comic element to the play amidst the tensions of the author’s marital life: Whenever Ardele and the Author quarrel the scene becomes serious, but in the middle of this seriousness the falling picture gives opportunity to the audience to laugh at it.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">Disorder and chaos: At the end of the play the ceiling collapses and cascades of water flows all over the room, even the pictures fall down from the walls as well, here the falling picture symbolises disorder and chaos (confusion) in the scene.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Some Satirical elements in the Play:</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-weight: bold;">Satire on Media:</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In its Satire on Media madame Bessarabo is the target. She has come all the way from Rumania to France just to interview the Author about his last play and especially to know what he feels about <b>Love, </b>but often she is seen to deviate from the topic and discuss about other unimportant matters.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">This particular situation also shows that the media can go to any length/extent for a sensational story. Here the media has been portrayed as taking undue advantage over the Author's private affairs and weakness.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Satire on celebrities: </b>The celebrities are satired through the character of the Author. Their behaviors are also ridiculed towards the end of the play where the Author is no more calm and behaves agitated. </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Elements of
Absurdity in the play:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The play follows
unconventional plot structures, theme and dialogues. Neither the scenes nor the
time is put properly in the play. Conventional norms have been forgone to
purposefully comment on the purposelessness and the meaninglessness of human
existence. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The events in
this play are not logically connected to each other, and to an average
audience, meaningless.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The arrangement and the
timing of events are haphazard. For instance Ardele pops into the scene
irregularly at her own discretion and we do not know whether she is present in
the house at other times when the author in engaged with other characters. Her
irregular interruptions make no sense at all. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The interview is cut
short several times with interventions from other characters but when they continue
again they begin as if they have progressed a lot actually when nothing has
been achieved.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The phone calls
especially Gustave’s, consume a significant amount of time. The anecdotes he
relates to the author has no relevancy to the author, he seems least bothered
about what Gustave is saying. Nonetheless from the other end we have Gustave
putting his heart and soul in explaining everything he has to offer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The maid’s pregnancy is
one that is very difficult to understand.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The actions of the characters are senseless, useless
and absurd. The author is bewildered,
troubled, and strangely threatened by a large number of visitors who each bring
a bag of problems to him.. He has no control over what is happening in his life
or his house. The final scene where he is shouting for everyone to be calm while
he himself is losing control shows him as a true absurd protagonist. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Distrust of language as a means of communication: Language in Episode in the Life an Author
is shown as an unreliable and insufficient tool of communication; the broken
dialogues and conversation between Ardele and the unknown woman (Leon’s wife),
the interview between Madam Bessarabo and the Author are some examples of this
use of language. In this way, conventional speech seems to act as a barrier
between the characters rather than serve as a means of communication.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Background:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Episode in the
life of an author </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">is
an excellent example of Jean Anouilh’s individualistic style that is eminently
entertaining and irresistibly theatrical. It is humorous in its absurdity and
its challenges the traditional notions of plot, character development and
resolution of conflict. It has characters who enter, leave and enter again as
they seek order in their lives from the art of author. They seem dependent on
him to rescue them from the turmoil of their lives. Some are green with envy of
the earlier characters which the author created because they live in a play
which is ordered. In this sense, they want him to write stories of their lives
and, indeed, the play can be seen as the struggle an author goes through as a
piece is written. It is as absurd drama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The play has
thirteen characters and requires little by way sets and costumes except false
noses for everybody. It is an experimental play.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The language is
simple and readily accessible to everyone. It challenges our ideas of order in
the world and in our everyday lives. The play authenticates the view that the
primary function of the theatre is entertainment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Theatre of
the Absurd<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The theatre of
the Absurd is an experimental theatrical style which came into prominence after
World War II in the works of writers such as Samuel Beckett, Jean Genet etc.
Many absurdist plays contain grotesque (ugly) and ludicrous (comical) elements.
The term ‘Absurd’ as applied to this moment carries the sense given to it by
the thinkers. All these writers feel that man is “Out of Harmony” and man
always finds himself in exile in a meaningless universe. The term ‘Absurd’ is
also applied to the modern sense of human purposelessness in the universe
without meaning or value.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The “Theatre of
the Absurd” is a term coined by Hungarian-born critic Martin Esslin, who made
it the title of his 1962 book on the subject. The term refers to a particular
type of play which first became popular during the 1950s and 1960s and which
presented on stage the philosophy articulated by French philosopher Albert
Camus in his 1942 essay, <i>The Myth of Sisyphus</i>, in which he defines the
human condition as basically meaningless.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">One of the most
important aspects of absurd drama is its distrust of language as a means of
communication. Language, it seems to say, has become nothing but a vehicle for
conventionalized, stereotyped, meaningless exchanges. Dr. Culik explains,
“Words failed to express the essence of human experience, not being able to
penetrate beyond its surface. The Theatre of the Absurd constituted first and
foremost an onslaught on language, showing it as a very unreliable and
insufficient tool of communication. Absurd drama uses conventionalized speech,
clichés, slogans and technical jargon, which it distorts, parodies and breaks
down. By ridiculing conventionalized and stereotyped speech patterns, the
Theatre of the Absurd tries to make people aware of the possibility of going
beyond everyday speech conventions and communicating more authentically.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Meaning of Farce</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A sub- genre of
the “Theatre of the Absurd”; Farce is a type of comedy designed to provoke
laughter. Farce is a type of comedy written with a sole intention to provoke
hearty laughter among the audience without weighing them down with any other
moral or ethical burden in the parlance of theatre. To do so it commonly
employs highly exaggerated or caricatured types of characters and puts them
into improbable and ludicrous situations. Besides it also makes free use of
sexual mix-ups, broad verbal humour, and physical bustle and horseplay. Farce
was a component in the comic episodes in medieval miracle plays. In the
enduring English drama, farce is usually an episode in a more complex form of
comedy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Theme of the
Play</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
play keenly follows the trends and techniques of the theme of absurdity which
deals with the theme of helplessness and confusion of human beings in the
modern world. The whole play appears to be full with disorder, chaos and
illogical sequence of events upon which no one has any control. The protagonist
(the Author) himself is in deep predicament from various angles. And to worsen
the matter further all other characters come to seek consolation and solution
to their problems from the Author. They all appear to be very much dependent on
the Author as they all want the Author to solve their problems and troubles.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Important
Features of Absurd Drama</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">It has unusual
plot structure, theme, dialogues and actions which makes it different from
other traditional plays.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The events and actions
are illogical, senseless, often useless, confusing, absurd and totally beyond
the understanding of the common audience.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Often situations
are funny absurd and often there is a lack of sequence of events. Unlike the
other regular plays absurd plays are the play of situations rather than the
play of sequential events.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The characters
are often caught in a chaotic situation and find it very difficult to understand
its place in the universe. They are often confused and under lots of
meaningless pressures and tensions. Often the inadequacy of language for
communication is also exposed and it is shown that language is an unreliable
and insufficient tool of communication. In this way, conventional speech seems to act as a
barrier between the characters rather than serve as a means of communication.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-25055039798594249552013-05-25T13:14:00.001+06:002013-09-27T11:03:12.962+06:00More on "Nature of Language"<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">THEORIES
OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5633394921043680644" name="Theorists"></a><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Theorists<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cognitive</span></b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> - Jean Piaget - can only understand language
when you understand concept (e.g. can talk in past tense when you know about
time)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Behaviourist</span></b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> - Skinner –Language is learned through
imitation - doesn't explain where new sentences come from. The Behaviorists believe that language
learning is a much more sophisticated process. The child is born with an empty
state of mind and language items are written on that mental state as the child
grows and experiences the world to which it is exposed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Nativist</span></b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> - Chomsky - Language Acquisition Device
(LAD) - works out what is/isn't acceptable language use using innate programmed
patterns (which are general). Exact rules learnt through trial and error. His
theory supports the fact that children around the world seem to develop at a
similar pace, irrespective of race/culture/mother tongue. (This also 'defies'
Skinner's model) Also, the fact that there is a universal grammar amongst all languages
of the world. & the fact that children consistently create new forms of
language that they would not have heard before.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Rationalists believe
that Language learning is a sophisticated process. The child is born with all
the facilities to learn the language. The linguistic ability is inherent in the
mind of the child. All the child does is discover and test.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Conversely,
John Macnamara - said that rather than having an in-built language device,
children have an innate capacity to read meaning into social situations. It is
this capacity that makes them capable of understanding and learning language,
not the LAD.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Interactive</span></b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> - caretaker, motherese etc - slower pace
than adult convo, simplified, repetition, short sentences, often caretaker
asking 'where is___?', 'that's a___', tag questions to involve child ('isn't
it?')<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Example
for importance of social interaction: Bard and Sachs. Studied a boy called
'Jim', who was son of two deaf parents. Although he was exposed to TV and
radio, his speech development was severely retarded until he attended sessions
with a speech therapist --> hence implying that human interaction is
necessary, as Jim was obviously ready to talk, but without the social
interaction with his therapist, he was unable to do so.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Katherine
Nelson - found that 60% of children's early word phrases contained nouns, then
verbs, pre-mods and phatic and she also said that the nouns were more commonly
things that surrounded the children i.e ball, mum, cat. Nelson also said that
in Re-casts (e.g. Ben - "me ball" mum - "pass me the ball")
children whose sentences were re-cast performed better at imitating sentences<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Halliday
is just the functions of child language, I remember them like RRIIIPH, like
rest in peace:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Representational
- "I've got something to show you" - language showing how they feel,
declarative<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Regulatory
- "Do as I tell you" - requesting/asking for things<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Instrumental
- "I want"- expressing needs/wants<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Interactional
- "Me and you" - speaking to other, establishing personal contact<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Imaginative
- "Let's pretend" - imaginative language, used with play, to create
imaginary world. Crystal talks of 'phonological' function as playing with
sound.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Personal
- "Here I come"- child expresses their feelings/expressing personal
preferences<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Heuristic
- "Tell me why"- uses language to explore environment/ seeking
information<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level2 lfo9; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Most
commonly used in children's language is instrumental and regulatory, which are
learnt, along with interactional and personal, at a young age. Representational
is used by 6-8+ year olds.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level2 lfo9; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Divine Theory: </span></b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Some theorists are of the opinion that
language learning is a divine process. According to them language learning is a
gift from God and is a divine faculty.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.05in;">
<b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Features
of child language acquisition:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Holophrases</span></b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> - one word (12-18mths), then two-word
stage (after 18mths), then telegraphic speech (after 2yrs) - sometimes
grammatically correct but omit determiners like 'a' and 'the'<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Underextension</span></b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> - 'car' only for family car, but not other
cars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Overextension</span></b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> - 'car' for tractor, van, etc<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fis</span></b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> <b>phenomenon</b> - Berko and Brown - child pronounces
fish as fis but when a parent asks if it is a fis, the child says no - when
asked if it's a fish, child says yes. can understand a word without being able
to pronounce it - comprehension before speech<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Simplification</span></b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> - deletion, substitution<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Intonation</span></b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> - Cruttenden - found children find it
harder to recognise intonation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Questions</span></b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> - inflection often used at first to show
it's a question, then question words learnt during 2nd yr, firstly what and
where, then why, how and who. results in 'where daddy gone?' as they've not
learnt auxiliary verb, 'has'. auxiliary verbs learnt 3rd yr, and how to form
qus is learnt too (reverse subject and verb order). 'joe is here' --> 'is
joe here?' but wh- words not always inverted correctly - 'why joe isn't here?'
(hehe plagiarised my revision book for the examples, sorry!)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo17; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Critical period for learning -</span></b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Cases about twins who
were kept locked up by their family, but they were rescued young so developed
normally. Feral children like Genie, who was forced not to talk, and hence only
made limited lang progress as she is thought to have missed the critical period
for learning lang. Two girls were found wolves in a wolves' den and had trouble
learning to speak etc </span><a href="http://www.feralchildren.com/en/showchild.php?ch=kamala" title="http://www.feralchildren.com/en/showchild.php?ch=kamala"><span style="color: #006da8; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[1]</span></a><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> "After three years, Kamala had mastered a
small vocabulary of about a dozen words. After several more years, her
vocabulary had increased to about 40.To compare, a normal two-year-old child,
at the peak of its language learning, would find it easy to pick up 40 new
words in a single week. Also, Kamala's words were only partly-formed and her
grammar stilted"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo18; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Stages of negatives:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo19; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Aged
0-15months - Gestures are used to indicate a negative<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo19; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">15-18months
- single words "no" "not" are used<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo19; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2-2
1/2 yrs - "no" and "not" are used either at the beginning
or end of a sentence e.g. "no eat" "going not"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo19; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3yrs
- negatives are used with the correct syntax i.e. intergrated into the sentence<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo19; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4/5/6yrs
- more subtle negatives i.e hardly, are used, more "n't"'s as well,
"can't" "won't" etc. Implied negatives are understood, i.e.
"we'll go later"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo20; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Look
at how much is said by each person, who controls what is being said, who takes
the lead, pragmatics, social context, as well as the actual things that are
being said<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Stages
of Language Acquisition:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Prenatal<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l12 level2 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Responsivity to human voices<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">First 6 months<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l12 level2 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cooing – cooing of infants around the world, including
deaf infants, is indistinguishable across babies and across languages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">After 6 months<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l12 level2 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Babbling – comprises the distinct phonemes that
characterize the primary language of the infant; deaf children can not babble <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1 to 3 years of age<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l12 level2 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">One-word utterances, telegraphic speech<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l12 level2 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Telegraphic speech – describes two- or three-word
utterances<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Overextension errors
(e.g. general term for man is “Dada”)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3 to 4 years <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l12 level2 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Expansion of vocabulary<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Overregularization (using regular inflection for
irregular verbs e.g. goed)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4 years<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l12 level2 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Basic adult sentence structure<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l12 level2 lfo21; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: BO; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Vocabulary continues to increase<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>
Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5633394921043680644.post-67901317043400882272013-05-25T09:41:00.001+06:002013-05-25T09:41:34.414+06:00Help for the Students on "Nature of language"<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="Section1">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">NATURE OF
LANGUAGE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">Etymology<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The etymology of
a word refers to its origin and historical development: that is, its earliest
known use, its transmission from one language to another, and its changes in
form and meaning. Etymology is also the term for the branch of linguistics that
studies word histories.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Methods used in Etymological study of
Language:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Etymologists apply a number of methods
to study the origins of words, some of which are:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Philological research</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">. Changes in the
form and meaning of the word can be traced with the aid of older texts, if such
are available.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Making use of dialectological data</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">. The form or
meaning of the word might show variations between dialects, which may yield
clues about its earlier history.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The comparative
method</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">.
By a systematic comparison of related languages, etymologists may often be able
to detect which words derive from their common ancestor language and which were
instead later borrowed from another language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The study of
semantic change</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">.
Etymologists must often make hypotheses about changes in the meaning of
particular words. Such hypotheses are tested against the general knowledge of
semantic shifts. For example, the assumption of a particular change of meaning
may be substantiated by showing that the same type of change has occurred in
other languages as well.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Types of word origins:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Etymological
theory recognizes that words originate through a limited number of basic
mechanisms, the most important of which are borrowing (i.e., the adoption of
"loanwords" from other languages); word formation such as derivation
and compounding; and onomatopoeia and sound symbolism, (i.e., the creation of
imitative words such as "click").<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">While the origin
of newly emerged words is often more or less transparent, it tends to become
obscured through time due to sound change or semantic change. Due to sound
change, it is not readily obvious that the English word set is related to the
word sit (the former is originally a causative formation of the latter). It is
even less obvious that bless is related to blood (the former was originally a
derivative with the meaning "to mark with blood"). Semantic change
may also occur. For example, the English word bead originally meant
"prayer". It acquired its modern meaning through the practice of
counting the recitation of prayers by using beads.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">English language:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">English derives
from Old English (sometimes referred to as Anglo-Saxon), a West Germanic
variety, although its current vocabulary includes words from many languages.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Old English
roots may be seen in the similarity of numbers in English and German, particularly <b>seven/sieben, eight/acht,
nine/neun, and ten/zehn. Pronouns are also cognate: I/mine/me
ich/mein/mich;thou/thine/thee and du/dein/dich; we/wir us/uns; she/sie</b>.
However, language change has eroded many grammatical elements, such as the noun
case system, which is greatly simplified in modern English, and certain
elements of vocabulary, some of which are borrowed from French. Although many
of the words in the English lexicon come from Romance languages, most of the
common words used in English are of Germanic origin. When the Normans conquered
England in 1066 (see Norman Conquest), they brought their Norman language with
them. During the Anglo-Norman period, which united insular and continental
territories, the ruling class spoke Anglo-Norman, while the peasants spoke the
vernacular English of the time. Anglo-Norman was the conduit for the
introduction of French into England, aided by the circulation of Langue d'oïl
literature from France. This led to many paired words of French and English
origin. For example, <b>beef is related, through borrowing, to modern French
bœuf, veal toveau, pork to porc, and poultry to poulet.</b> All these words,
French and English, refer to the meat rather than to the animal. Words that
refer to farm animals, on the other hand, tend to be cognates of words in other
Germanic languages. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">For example <b>swine/Schwein,
cow/Kuh, calf/Kalb, and sheep/Schaf.</b> The variant usage has been explained
by the proposition that it was the Norman rulers who mostly ate meat (an
expensive commodity) and the Anglo-Saxons who farmed the animals. This
explanation has passed into common folklore but has been disputed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">English has
proven accommodating to words from many languages, as described in the
following examples. Scientific terminology relies heavily on words of Latin and
Greek origin. Spanish has contributed many words, particularly in the
southwestern United States. Examples include buckaroo from vaquero or
"cowboy"; alligator from el lagarto or "lizard"; rodeo and
savvy; states' names such as Colorado and Florida. Cuddle, eerie, and greed
come from Scots; albino, palaver, lingo, verandah, and coconut from Portuguese;
diva, prima donna, pasta, pizza, paparazzi, and umbrellafrom Italian; adobe,
alcohol, algebra, algorithm, apricot, assassin, caliber, cotton, hazard,
jacket, jar, julep, mosque, Muslim, orange, safari, sofa, and zero from Arabic;
honcho, sushi, andtsunami from Japanese; dim sum, gung ho, kowtow, kumquat,
ketchup, and typhoon from Cantonese; behemoth, hallelujah, Satan, jubilee, and
rabbi from Hebrew; taiga, sable, and sputnik fromRussian; galore, whiskey,
phoney, trousers, and Tory from Irish; brahman, guru, karma, and pandit from
Sanskrit; kampong and amok from Malay; smorgasbord and ombudsman from Swedish,
Danish, Norwegian; sauna from Finnish; and boondocks from the Tagalog word,
bundok. (See also "loanword.")<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">History:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The search for
meaningful origins for familiar or strange words is far older than the modern
understanding of linguistic evolution and the relationships of languages, which
began no earlier than the 18th century. From Antiquity through the 17th
century, from Pāṇini to Pindar to Sir Thomas Browne, etymology had been a form
of witty wordplay, in which the supposed origins of words were changed to
satisfy contemporary requirements.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Greek poet
Pindar (born in approximately 522 BCE) employed creative etymologies to flatter
his patrons. Plutarch employed etymologies insecurely based on fancied
resemblances insounds. Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae was an encyclopedic
tracing of "first things" that remained uncritically in use in Europe
until the sixteenth century. Etymologicum genuinum is agrammatical encyclopedia
edited at Constantinople in the ninth century, one of several similar Byzantine
works. The fourteenth-century Legenda Aurea begins each vita of a saint with a
fancifulexcursus in the form of an etymology.[citation needed]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Modern era:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Etymology in the
modern sense emerged in the late 18th century European academia, within the
context of the wider "Age of Enlightenment," although preceded by
17th century pioneers such asMarcus Zuerius van Boxhorn, Vossius, Stephen
Skinner, Elisha Coles, and William Wotton. The first known systematic attempt
to prove the relationship between two languages on the basis of similarity of
grammar and lexicon was made in 1770 by the Hungarian, János Sajnovics, when he
attempted to demonstrate the relationship between Sami and Hungarian (work that
was later extended to the whole Finno-Ugric language family in 1799 by his
fellow countryman, Samuel Gyarmathi).[3] The origin of modern historical
linguistics is often traced back to Sir William Jones, an English philologist
living in India, who in 1782 observed the genetic relationship between
Sanskrit, Greek and Latin. Jones published his The Sanskrit Language in 1786,
laying the foundation for the field of Indo-European linguistics.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In etymology,
back-formation is the process of creating a new lexeme, usually by removing
actual or supposed affixes. The resulting neologism is called a back-formation,
a term coined byJames Murray in 1889. (OED online first definition of 'back
formation' is from the definition of to burgle, which was first published in
1889.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Back-formation</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> is different
from <b>clipping</b> – back-formation may change the part of speech or the
word's meaning, whereas clipping creates shortened words from longer words, but
does not change the part of speech or the meaning of the word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">For example, the
noun resurrection was borrowed from Latin, and the verb resurrect was then
backformed hundreds of years later from it by removing the ion suffix. This
segmentation ofresurrection into resurrect + ion was possible because English
had examples of Latinate words in the form of verb and verb+-ion pairs, such as
opine/opinion. These became the pattern for many more such pairs, where a verb
derived from a Latin supine stem and a noun ending in ion entered the language
together, such as insert/insertion, project/projection, etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Back-formation
may be similar to the reanalyses of folk etymologies when it rests on an
erroneous understanding of the morphology of the longer word. For example, the
singular noun asset is a back-formation from the plural assets. However, assets
is originally not a plural; it is a loan-word from Anglo-Norman asetz (modern
French assez). The -s was reanalyzed as a plural suffix.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Back-formation in the English language:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Many words came
into English by this route: Pease was once a mass noun but was reinterpreted as
a plural, leading to the back-formation pea. The noun statistic was likewise a
back-formation from the field of study statistics. In Britain, the verb burgle
came into use in the 19th century as a back-formation from burglar (which can
be compared to the North American verb burglarizeformed by suffixation).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Other examples are:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Adjective
"couth" from "uncouth"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Verb
"edit" from "editor"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Singular
"syrinx", plural "syringes" (from Greek): new singular
"syringe" formed<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Singular
"sastruga", plural "sastrugi" (from Russian): new
Latin-type singular "sastrugus" has been used sometimes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Verbs
"euthanase" or "euthanize" from the noun
"euthanasia".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Philology</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> is the study of
language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary studies,
history and linguistics.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Because of its
focus on historical development (diachronic analysis), philology came to be
used as a term contrasting with linguistics. This is due to a 20th-century
development triggered byFerdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of
synchronic analysis, and the later emergence of structuralism and Chomskian
linguistics with its emphasis on syntax.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Semantic change</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">, also known as
semantic shift or semantic progression describes the evolution of word usage —
usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from the
original usage. In diachronic (or historical) linguistics, semantic change is a
change in one of the meanings of a word. Every word has a variety of senses and
connotations which can be added, removed, or altered over time, often to the
extent that cognates across space and time have very different meanings. The
study of semantic change can be seen as part of etymology,onomasiology,
semasiology, and semantics.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Examples</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Awe
- Originally meant "fear, dread"; the adjective awful still retains
the negative sense. The likeliest source for this ameliorative shift was the
word's association with the Christian God, conflictingly portrayed as
authoritative and vengeful on the one hand but as wondrous and benevolent on
the other. Likewise, the expression god-fearing to mean "devout".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Demagogue
- Originally meant "a popular leader". It is from the Greek dēmagōgós
"leader of the people", from dēmos "people" + agōgós
"leading, guiding". Now the word has strong connotations of a
politician who panders to emotions and prejudice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Egregious
- Originally described something that was remarkably good. The word is from the
Latin egregius "illustrious, select", literally, "standing out
from the flock", which is from ex- "out of" + greg- (grex)
"flock". Now it means something that is remarkably bad or flagrant.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Guy
- Guy Fawkes was the alleged leader of a plot to blow up the English Houses of
Parliament on 5 Nov. 1605. The day was made a holiday, Guy Fawkes day,
commemorated by parading and burning a ragged, grotesque effigy of Fawkes,
known as a Guy. This led to the use of the word guy as a term for any
"person of grotesque appearance" and then by the late 1800s -
especially in America - for "any man", as in, e.g., "Some guy
called for you." Over the 20th century, guy has replaced fellow in
America, and, under the influence of American popular culture, has been
gradually replacing fellow, bloke, chap and other such words throughout the
rest of the English-speaking world. In the plural, it can refer to a mixture of
genders (e.g., "Come on, you guys!" could be directed to a group of
men and women).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Gay
- Originally meant (13th c.) "lighthearted", "joyous" or
(14th c.) "bright and showy"; it had also come to acquire
connotations of immorality as early as 1637, either sexual e.g., gay
woman"prostitute", gay man "womanizer", gay house
"brothel", or otherwise, e.g., gay dog "over-indulgent man"
and gay deceiver "deceitful and lecherous". In America by 1897 the
expression gay catreferred to a hobo, especially a younger hobo in the company
of an older one; by 1935, it was used in prison slang for a homosexual boy; and
by 1951 and clipped to gay, referred to homosexuals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Types of semantic change:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A number of classification schemes have
been suggested for semantic change. The most widely accepted scheme in the
English-speaking academic world is from Bloomfield (1933):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Narrowing:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Change from superordinate level to
subordinate level. For example, skyline used to refer to any horizon, but now
it has narrowed to a horizon decorated by skyscrapers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Widening:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Change from subordinate level to
superordinate level. There are many examples of specific brand names being used
for the general product, such as with Kleenex. Such uses are known as
generonyms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Metaphor</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Change based on similarity of thing. For
example, broadcast originally meant "to cast seeds out"; with the
advent of radio and television, the word was extended to indicate the
transmission of audio and video signals. Outside of agricultural circles, very
few people use broadcast in the earlier sense.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Metonymy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Change based on nearness in space or
time, e.g., jaw "cheek" → "mandible".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Synecdoche</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Change based on whole-part relation.
The convention of using capital cities to represent countries or their
governments is an example of this.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Meiosis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Change from weaker to stronger
meaning, e.g., kill "torment" → "slaughter"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Hyperbole</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: . Change from stronger to weaker
meaning, e.g., astound "strike with thunder" → "surprise
strongly".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Degeneration</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: e.g., knave "boy" →
"servant" → "deceitful or despicable man".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Elevation</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: e.g., knight "boy" →
"nobleman".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">However, the categorization of Blank
(1998) has gained increasing acceptance:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Metaphor</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Change based on similarity between
concepts, e.g., mouse "rodent" → "computer device".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Metonymy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Change based on contiguity between
concepts, e.g., horn "animal horn" → "musical instrument".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Synecdoche</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Same as above.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Specialization of meaning:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Downward shift
in a taxonomy, e.g., corn "grain" → "wheat" (UK), →
"maize" (US).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Generalization of meaning</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Upward shift
in a taxonomy, e.g., hoover "Hoover vacuum cleaner" → "any type
of vacuum cleaner".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Cohyponymic transfer:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Horizontal
shift in a taxonomy, e.g., the confusion of mouse and rat in some dialects.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Antiphrasis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Change based on a contrastive aspect
of the concepts, e.g., perfect lady in the sense of "prostitute".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Auto-antonymy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Change of a word's sense and concept
to the complementary opposite, e.g., bad in the slang sense of
"good".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Auto-converse:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Lexical expression of a
relationship by the two extremes of the respective relationship, e.g., take in
the dialectal use as "give".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Ellipsis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Semantic change based on the
contiguity of names, e.g., car "cart" → "automobile", due
to the invention of the (motor) car.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Folk-etymology</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Semantic change based on the
similarity of names, e.g., French contredanse, orig. English country dance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Blank considers
it problematic, though, to include amelioration and pejoration of meaning as
well as strengthening and weakening of meaning. According to Blank, these are
not objectively classifiable phenomena; moreover, Blank has shown that all of
the examples listed under these headings can be grouped into the other
phenomena.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h1 style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">Methods Of Etymology:<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Etymology
is the study of the history of words — when they entered a language, from what source,
and how their form and meaning have changed over time.</div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Etymological
theory recognizes that words originate through a limited number of basic
mechanisms, the most important of which are the following:</div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Borrowing</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">, i.e. the adoption of loanwords from other
languages.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Word formation such as derivation and compounding.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Onomatopoeia and sound symbolism</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">, i.e. the
creation of imitative words.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
While
the origin of newly emerged words is often more or less transparent, it tends
to become obscured through time due to:</div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Sound
change:</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">for example, it
is not obvious at first sight that English set is related to sit (the former is
originally a causative formation of the latter), and even less so that bless is
related to blood (the former was originally a derivative with the meaning “to
mark with blood”, or the like).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Semantic
change:</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">English bead
originally meant “prayer”, and acquired its modern sense through the practice
of counting prayers with beads.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Most
often combinations of etymological mechanisms apply. For example, the German
word <b>bitte</b> (please) the German word <b>beten</b> (to pray) and the Dutch
word <b>bidden</b> (to pray) are related through sound and meaning to the
English word <b>bead</b>.</div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The
combination of sound change and semantic change often creates etymological
connections that are impossible to detect by merely looking at the modern
word-forms. For instance, English <b>lord</b> comes from Old <b>English
hlāf-weard, meaning literally “bread guard”.</b> The components of this
compound, in turn, yielded modern English loaf and ward.</div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Synchronic analysis:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In linguistics,
a synchronic analysis is one that views linguistic phenomena only at one point
in time, usually the present, though a synchronic analysis of a historical
language form is also possible. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This may be
distinguished from diachronics, which regards a phenomenon in terms of
developments through time. Diachronic analysis is the main concern of
historical linguistics; most other branches of linguistics are concerned with
some form of synchronic analysis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Synchronic and
diachronic</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">
approaches can reach quite different conclusions. For example, a Germanic
strong verb like English sing - sang - sung is irregular when viewed
synchronically: the native speaker's brain processes these as learned forms,
whereas the derived forms of regular verbs are processed quite differently, by
the application of productive rules (for example, adding -edto the basic form
of a verb as in walk - walked). This is an insight of psycholinguistics,
relevant also for language didactics, both of which are synchronic disciplines.
However a diachronic analysis will show that the strong verb is the remnant of
a fully regular system of internal vowel changes; historical linguistics seldom
uses the category "irregular verb".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What's the Difference Between a
Definition and an Etymology?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A definition
tells us what a word means and how it's used in our own time. An etymology
tells us where a word came from (often, but not always, from another language)
and what it used to mean.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">For example,
according to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, the
definition of the word disaster is "an occurrence causing widespread
destruction and distress; a catastrophe" or "a grave misfortune."
But the etymology of the word disaster takes us back to a time when people
commonly blamed great misfortunes on the influence of the stars.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Disaster first
appeared in English in the late 16th century, just in time for Shakespeare to
use the word in the play King Lear. It arrived by way of the Old Italian word
disastro, which meant "unfavorable to one's stars."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This older,
astrological sense of disaster becomes easier to understand when we study its
Latin root word, astrum, which also appears in our modern "star" word
astronomy. With the negative Latin prefix dis- ("apart") added to
astrum ("star"), the word (in Latin, Old Italian, and Middle French)
conveyed the idea that a catastrophe could be traced to the "evil
influence of a star or planet" (a definition that the dictionary tells us
is now "obsolete").<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Is the Etymology of a Word Its True
Definition?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Not at all, though people sometimes try
to make this argument. The word etymology is derived from the Greek word
etymon, which means "the true sense of a word." But in fact the
original meaning of a word is often different from its contemporary definition.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The meanings of many words have changed
over time, and older senses of a word may grow uncommon or disappear entirely
from everyday use. Disaster, for instance, no longer means the "evil
influence of a star or planet," just as consider no longer means "to
observe the stars." <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Let's look at another example. Our
English word salary is defined by The American Heritage Dictionary of the
English Language as "fixed compensation for services, paid to a person on
a regular basis." Its etymology can be traced back 2,000 years to sal, the
Latin word for salt. So what's the connection between salt and salary?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Roman historian Pliny the Elder
tells us that "in Rome, a soldier was paid in salt," which back then
was widely used as a food preservative. Eventually, this salarium came to
signify a stipend paid in any form, usually money. Even today the expression
"worth your salt" indicates that you're working hard and earning your
salary. However, this doesn't mean that salt is the true definition of salary.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Where Do Words Come From?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">New words have entered (and continue to
enter) the English language in many different ways. Here are some of the most
common ways. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Borrowing</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The majority of the words used in modern
English have been borrowed from other languages. Although most of our
vocabulary comes from Latin and Greek (often by way of other European
languages), English has borrowed words from more than 300 different languages
around the world. Here are just a few examples: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• futon
(from the Japanese word for "bedclothes, bedding")<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• gorilla
(Greek Gorillai, a tribe of hairy women, perhaps of African origin)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• hamster
(Middle High German hamastra)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• kangaroo
(Aboriginal language of Guugu Yimidhirr, gangurru , referring to a species of
kangaroo)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• kink
(Dutch, "twist in a rope")<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• moccasin
(Native American Indian, Virginia Algonquian, akin to Powhatan mäkäsn and
Ojibwa makisin)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• molasses
(Portuguese melaços, from Late Latin mellceum, from Latin mel,
"honey")<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• muscle
(Latin musculus, "mouse")<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• slogan
(alteration of Scots slogorne, "battle cry")<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• smorgasbord
(Swedish, literally "bread and butter table")<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">• whiskey
(Old Irish uisce, "water," and bethad, "of life")<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Clipping or Shortening<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Some new words
are simply shortened forms of existing words, for instance indie from
independent; exam from examination; flu from influenza, and fax from facsimile.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Compounding<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A new word may
also be created by combining two or more existing words: fire engine, for
example, and babysitter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Blends<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A blend (also
called a portmanteau word) is a word formed by merging the sounds and meanings
of two or more other words. Examples include moped, from mo(tor) + ped(al), and
brunch, from br(eakfast) + (l)unch.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Conversion or Functional Shift<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">New words are often formed by changing
an existing word from one part of speech to another. For example, innovations
in technology have encouraged the transformation of the nouns network, Google,
microwave, and fax into verbs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Transfer of Proper Nouns<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Sometimes the
names of people, places, and things become generalized vocabulary words. For
instance, the noun maverick was derived from the name of an American cattleman,
Samuel Augustus Maverick. The saxophone was named after Sax, the surname of a
19th-century Belgian family that made musical instruments.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Neologisms or Creative Coinages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A neologism</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> ( /niːˈɒlədʒɪzəm/;
from Greek νέο- (néo-), meaning "new", and λόγος (lógos), meaning
"speech, utterance") is a newly coined term, word, or phrase, that
may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted
into mainstream language. Neologisms are often directly attributable to a
specific person, publication, period, or event. Neolexia (Greek: a "new
word", or the act of creating a new word) is a fully equivalent term.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Neologisms are
often created by combining existing words (see compound noun and adjective) or
by giving words new and unique suffixes or prefixes. Portmanteaux are combined
words that are sometimes used commonly. "Brunch" is an example of a
portmanteau word (breakfast + lunch). Lewis Carroll's "snark" (snake
+ shark) is also a portmanteau. Neologisms also can be created through
abbreviation or acronym, by intentionally rhyming with existing words or simply
through playing with sounds.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">When a word or
phrase is no longer "new", it is no longer a neologism. Neologisms
may take decades to become "old", however. Opinions differ on exactly
how old a word must be to cease being considered a neologism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Now and then,
new products or processes inspire the creation of entirely new words. Such
neologisms are usually short lived, never even making it into a dictionary.
Nevertheless, some have endured, for example quark (coined by novelist James
Joyce), galumph (Lewis Carroll), aspirin (originally a trademark), grok (Robert
A. Heinlein).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 72.4pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Imitation of Sounds<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Words are also
created by onomatopoeia, naming things by imitating the sounds that are
associated with them: boo, bow-wow, tinkle, click.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Why Should We Care About Word Histories?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">If a word's
etymology is not the same as its definition, why should we care at all about
word histories? Well, for one thing, understanding how words have developed can
teach us a great deal about our cultural history. In addition, studying the
histories of familiar words can help us to deduce the meanings of unfamiliar
words, thereby enriching our vocabularies. Finally, word stories are often both
entertaining and thought provoking. As any youngster can tell you, words are
fun.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Phonetics</span></u></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The branch
of linguistics that studies word components of the phonetic system of the
language. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Concerned
with human noises by which the thought is actualized or given audible
shape + nature, fs, relation to the meaning of these noises<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Phonetics
is the study of speech sounds. Although language is obviously composed of
sound, speech sounds came to be the main focus of linguistic investigation only
in the 20th century. 19th century linguists were more interested in written
rather than spoken language. Only with the work of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de
Saussure in the early 20th century did linguists recognize the primacy of sound
in human language and the secondary, superficial nature of writing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Phonetics has
three branches:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 72.4pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Acoustic phonetics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: is the study of the physical
properties of sounds, the air wave frequencies of which sounds consist. The
frequency of vibrations measured in hertz; volume of sound measured in
decibels. Instruments used to measure and record speech sounds include the
sound spectrograph, which produces readouts called sound spectrograms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Auditory phonetics:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> is the study of
how sounds are perceived by the human ear or recognized by the brain. (Mention
Oronyms, Mondegreens.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 72.4pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Articulatory phonetics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: is the study
of how sounds are produced by the vocal apparatus/how speech sounds are made or
articulated.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Components
of phonetic system</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">segmental
phonemes<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">word stress<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">syllabic
structure<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">intonation<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Phoneme</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Smallest distinctive speech sounds in
a language. Each phoneme in a language is unique and different from other
phoneme. It is the smallest unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts
between utterances. If phoneme changes, meaning also changes. Each spoken word
has one or more individual phoneme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">P</span></u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">an – S<u>p</u>an (Same phoneme)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">P</span></u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">an – <u>t</u>an (Different phoneme)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The phoneme<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Basic
concept of phonetics<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Smallest
unit of language, existing as such speech sound which is capable of
differentiating one word from another, or one grammatical form from another.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Speech
sound that makes a difference in meaning<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">A class or
family of sounds regarded as a single sound and represented in
transcription by the same symbol<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Abstractional
and generalized in character exists in our minds as an abstraction and at
the same time is generalized in speech in the form of its allophones<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Phoneme
may be</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">
pronounced differently in different ws but still remain the same phoneme <b><i>pleat-play-wale.<o:p></o:p></i></b></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2 main</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> classes of phonemes: <b><u>vowels</u></b> and <b><u>consonants</u></b> <b><i><o:p></o:p></i></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Pairs of words that demonstrate a
phonemic contrast <b>– minimal pai</b>rs
(discovered by method of commutation) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Phonemics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Study of the sound system / phoneme of
a given language. It is also the classification and analysis of its phoneme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Morpheme:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Smallest meaningful unit into which a
word can be divided. <b>Free Morpheme</b>
can be used alone as individual words.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Eg: Take, Sligh<u>ly.</u><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Bound morpheme</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> form words only when attached to
one morpheme. Bound morpheme are prefixes and suffixes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">UN-</span></u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">SLIGHT-<u>LY</u> (Bound – free
–bound morpheme)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Affixes:
Prefixes and suffixes.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Inflectional
affix</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">
– Shows a grammatical feature.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<div class="Section2">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Example: Crown – Crown<u>s<o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Go
– Go<u>ing<o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
</div>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Derivational
af</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">fixes
are either prefixes or suffixes, which changes the meaning of the word to which
they are attached.<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<div class="Section4">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Eg: Plant
– Transplant<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Believable
– unbelievable<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Joy
– Joyless<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Syntax</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> is the
arrangement of words into phrases and sentences. It is words arranged into
phrases and phrase arranged into sentences. Words put in order.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Eg. I had stolen the car / I had the car
stolen / Stolen the car I.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Grapheme</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> – Smallest
meaningful unit of a written language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">Morphology </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">Is the arrangement and relationship of the smallest meaningful units
in a language these minimum units of meaning are called morphemes. It is often
useful to distinguish between <b>free </b>and<b> bound</b> morphemes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">Free morphemes</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"> can be used alone as independent words for example, <i>take, for,
each</i> etc<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">Bound morphemes</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"> form words only when attached to at least one other morphemes<i>; re,
dis</i> <i>,un, -ing, –ful </i>and<i> –tion</i>
are all bound morphemes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">The most familiar <b>bound
morphemes</b> are affixes (that is, prefixes and suffixes) but even bases
(Forms to which affixes are attached) can be bound. An example of a bound base
is the <i>–cept</i> of words as except, accept, deceptive, and reception;
although -<i>cept</i> derives from an independent Latin verb <i>capere </i>‘to
take’, it appears only as a bound morpheme in English.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">Syntax</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"> is the arrangement of words in to phrases, clauses, and sentences,
loosely speaking, it is word order. A simple example like the difference
between <b>I had stolen my</b> <b>car</b> and<b> I had my car stolen</b> illustrates how crucial syntax is in English.
English speakers have more option with
respect to syntax than they do with respect to phonology or morphology. But we
have the option of saying either<b> I like
dogs. Or dogs</b> <b>I like</b>. This freedom is limited, however; they cannot say <b>like dogs I. Or Like I dogs.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">The Lexicon</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"> of a language is the list of all the Morphemes in the language. In
linguistic terminology, a lexicon differs from vocabulary or a dictionary of a
language in that it includes not only independent words but also morphemes that
do not appear as independent words, including affixes such as-ed, -s, mis, and
poly- and bound forms like the –clude of include, exclude, and preclude, which
appear only as part of words and never as independent words. One of the most
remarkable features of English today is the great size and diversity of origin
of its Lexicon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">Semantics </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">is the study of meanings or all the meanings
expressed by a language. It is the relationship between language and the real
world, between the sounds we make and what we are talking about like all other
aspects of language, meanings change overtime<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">There are a number of possible ways of classifying
types of semantic change. None of them are totally satisfactory:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<br /></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<div class="Section6">
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Generalization and Narrowing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Amelioration and Pejoration.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Strengthening and Weakening.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Abstraction and Concretization.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Shift in Denotation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
<div class="Section7">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Affix</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: An affix is a
morpheme which is added to a root morpheme in the formation of a word. In its
broadest sense, an affix can be a prefix, a suffix, or an infix. More narrowly,
infixes are sometimes treated separately. See also morphology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">ATN
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">=
Augmented Transition Network.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Diphthong</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: If the tongue
moves significantly during the production of a vowel phone, the result is a
diphthong. A diphthong sounds like a rapid, blended sequence of two separate
vowels. An example in English is the vowel sound in the word kite, which is
like a rapid combination of a kind of 'a sound' and a kind of 'i sound'. In the
IPA a diphthong is represented by two vowel symbols. It is important to note
that the two symbols represent a SINGLE phone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Ellipsis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: A technical term for leaving out words in
sentences. For example, in Brian ate the ice-cream and Judy the peaches, there
is ellipsis, since the word ate is omitted after Judy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Grapheme</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: A grapheme is a 'spelling unit'. For example,
in Spanish the combination ll represents a different sound from a single l.
Thus these are two graphemes. In English, graphemes may be quite complex. For
example -tion behaves more-or-less as a single grapheme in words like function.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Inflection</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: A grammatical change in the form of a word
(more accurately of a lexeme), which leaves the 'base meaning' and the
grammatical category of the word unchanged. In English, inflections are
restricted to the endings of words (i.e. suffixes). Other languages may show
changes elsewhere. As an example, the suffix s is the usual written plural
inflection in English. Inflections in nouns may show changes of number, gender,
case, etc.; in verbs, of number, person, tense, aspect, etc. See also
morphology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Intonation</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Intonation refers to changes in the tone or
frequency of sounds during speech. For example, in English the tone usually
falls at the end of a statement and rises at the end of a question, so that You
want some coffee. and You want some coffee? can be distinguished by tone alone.
In some languages (e.g. Chinese, Thai), sequences containing the same phones
but with different intonation patterns correspond to different words.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">IPA:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> The International Phonetic Alphabet or IPA is
a set of symbols which can be used to represent the phones and phonemes of
natural languages. A subset which can be used to represent 'Standard English
English' (roughly the dialect of middle-class people from the south east of
England) is given in a separate table.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Morphology</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: The structure of words and the study of this
structure. For example, a morphological analysis of the English word
unknowingly might yield four components, called morphemes. These are the root
know and three affixes, the prefix un indicating negation, and two suffixes ing
and ly. Note that both spelling and pronunciation changes can take place when
morphemes are combined. Thus the root happy plus the affix ly yields happily
not *happyly. Many English words appear to contain morphemes, but resist neat
division. For example, the suffix ish often indicates that the word refers to a
language (e.g. English, Spanish, Danish, Swedish), but removing the suffix does
not always leave a clear root morpheme (e.g. Spanish = ?Span(e) + ish). In
other cases, it may be that a word was in the past created from distinct
morphemes, but that this is not obvious to a contemporary speaker as the
morphemes are no longer used in forming new words.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">When
an affix morpheme is an inflection, the word can be said to show inflectional
morphology. Thus the word chased (= chase + ed) shows inflectional morphology.
In many languages, including English, inflectional morphology is relatively
predictable, and can be handled by rules.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In
other cases, the word can be said to show derivational morphology. Thus the
word output = out + put shows derivational morphology: adding the prefix out to
the verb put creates a noun with the approximate meaning "that which was
put out". In many languages, including English, derivational morphology is
unpredictable, and so cannot easily be handled by rules. Thus there's no noun
*outgo meaning "that which went out" (although there is a noun, most
often used in the plural, outgoings = out + go + ing + s).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
<div class="Section8">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">NL</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> = Natural
Language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">NLP</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> = Natural
Language Processing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<div class="Section9">
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Phone</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: A phone is a 'unit sound' of a language in
the sense that it is the minimal sound by which two words can differ. For
example, the English word feed contains three phones since each can be
independently substituted to form a different word. In the IPA, the three
phones can be written as [f], [i] and [d]. Examples of substitutions are: [fid]
- [f] + [s] gives [sid], i.e. seed; [fid] - [i] + [u] gives [fud], i.e. food;
[fid] - [d] + [t] gives [fit], i.e. feet. The whole of each phone must be
substituted to change one word into another. It is important to note that
whether or not speakers can distinguish between sounds is not a test of whether
they constitute distinct phones. The word tea could be represented as [ti] and
the word tree as [tri]. However, the two 't sounds' are not quite the same: the
tongue is further back in the mouth when pronouncing the [t] in [tri] than when
pronouncing the [t] in [ti]. How far to divide up sounds into phones is
essentially a pragmatic question. Using more phones will enable speech to
represented more accurately but at a cost in terms of complexity. See also
allophone, phoneme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Phoneme</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: A phoneme is a minimally distinctive set of
sounds in a language; sound sequences which differ in a single phoneme can
constitute different words. Thus the pairs tip-dip and trip-drip show that
English has two distinct phonemes, which we can write as /t/ and /d/, since
substituting one for the other produces a different word. However, the
pronunciation of /t/ (and /d/) is not the same in each pair: the tongue is
further back in the mouth when /t/ is followed by /r/. Hence there are at least
two phones corresponding to the /t/ phoneme. However there are no two English
words in which the ONLY difference is that the 't sound in trip' is replaced by
the 't sound in tip' -- these two sounds are allophones of the same phoneme.
English speakers do not need to recognize the difference between them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Phonetics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: Phonetics is
the study of the sounds of speech (i.e. the study of phones). It can be
distinguished from phonology which is more concerned with the underlying theory
(i.e. the phonemes which underlie phones and the rules which govern the
conversion of phonemes to phones and vice versa).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Phonological
rule</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: At some theoretical level, words can be considered
to be composed of phonemes. The actual sound of a word then depends on which
allophone is chosen for each phoneme. The context-sensitive rules which
determine this are called phonological rules. Thus the word input can be
considered to contain the phoneme /n/. However in fast speech in many dialects
of English, the phone used will be [m]. The relevant phonological rule for
English is that a nasal becomes articulated at the same position as a following
stop.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Pragmatics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: A technical term meaning, roughly, what the
person speaking or writing actually meant, rather than what the words
themselves mean.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Prefix:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> A prefix is a morpheme which is added before
a root morpheme in the formation of a word. See morphology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Referential
semantics:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> A system where the meaning of a word just is
the thing it refers to.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Semantic
feature</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: A semantic feature is a 'primitive' which a
language processor (human or computer) is assumed to be able to determine
independently of the language system. The meaning of words such as nouns or
adjectives can then be described in terms of sets of these features. For
example we might describe the meaning of words such as boy, man, girl and woman
in terms of the features YOUNG, MALE and HUMAN. Boy would be [+YOUNG, +MALE,
+HUMAN], woman would be [-YOUNG, -MALE, +HUMAN]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Stress
Words</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">
can be divided into syllables, usually centred around a vowel. In many
languages, including English, the duration and relative loudness of a syllable
-- its stress -- are important. Thus only stress distinguishes the noun PROcess
(as in the sentence This process is called assimilation) from the much less
common verb proCESS (as in the sentence I usually process at the degree
ceremony). The noun is stressed on the first syllable, the verb on the second.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Suffix</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: A suffix is a morpheme which is added after a
root morpheme in the formation of a word. See morphology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Syntax</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">: The syntax of a language comprises, roughly
speaking, the patterns into which its words can be validly arranged to form
sentences. The combination of morphology and syntax is sometimes called the
grammar of a language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Nonverbal communication</b> is usually understood
as the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless (mostly
visual) messages between people. Messages can be communicated through gestures
and touch, by body language or posture, by facial expression and eye contact.
Nonverbal messages could also be communicated through material exponential;
meaning, objects or artifacts (such as clothing, hairstyles or architecture).
Speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice
quality, rate, pitch, volume, and speaking style, as well prosodic features
such as rhythm, intonation, and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal
elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the
physical layout of a page. However, much of the study of nonverbal
communication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can be
classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where
communication takes place, physical characteristics of the communicators, and
behaviors of communicators during interaction.</div>
<b>Proxemics: Physical Space in Communication<o:p></o:p></b><br />
When you are talking to someone stay out of their “intimate space” they want
to talk to you but just do not want to have you all over them. “ Most animals
have a certain air space around their bodies that they claim as their personal
space…1-18 in being the intimate zone, 18-48 in being the personal zone, 4-12
ft. being the social zone and the public zone at over 12 ft.”<br />
Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space
around them. The space between the sender and the receiver of a message
influences the way the message is interpreted. In addition, the perception and
use of space varies significantly across cultures[10] and different settings
within cultures. Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into four main
categories: intimate, social, personal, and public space.<br />
<b>Chronemics: time in communication<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Chronemics is the study of the use of time in
nonverbal communication. The way we perceive time, structure our time and react
to time is a powerful communication tool and helps set the stage for
communication. Time perceptions include punctuality and the willingness to
wait, plus the speed of speech and how long people are willing to listen. The
timing and frequency of an action as well as the tempo and rhythm of
communications within an interaction contributes to the interpretation of
nonverbal messages. Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey (1988) identified two dominant
time patterns: monochronic time and polychronic time.</div>
<b>Monochronic Time<o:p></o:p></b><br />
A monochronic time system means that things are done one at a time and time
is segmented into precise, small units. Under this system time is scheduled,
arranged and managed.<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The United States is considered a monochronic
society. This perception of time is learned and rooted in the Industrial
Revolution, where "factory life required the labor force to be on hand and
in place at an appointed hour" (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999, p.
238). For Americans, time is a precious resource not to be wasted or taken
lightly. "We buy time, save time, spend time and make time. Our time can
be broken down into years, months, days, hours, minutes, seconds and even
milliseconds. We use time to structure both our daily lives and events that we
are planning for the future. We have schedules that we must follow:
appointments that we must go to at a certain time, classes that start and end
at certain times, work schedules that start and end at certain times, and even
our favorite TV shows, that start and end at a certain time.”</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
As communication scholar Edward T. Hall wrote
regarding the American viewpoint of time in the business world, “the schedule
is sacred.” Hall says that for monochronic cultures, “time is tangible” and
viewed as a commodity where “time is money” or “time is wasted.” The result of
this perspective is that Americans and other monochronic cultures, such as the
German and Swiss, place a paramount value on schedules, tasks and “getting the
job done.” These cultures are committed to regimented schedules and may view
those who do not subscribe to the same perception of time as disrespectful.</div>
Monochronic cultures include Germany, Canada, Switzerland, the United
States, and Scandinavia.<br />
<b>Polychronic Time<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
A polychronic time system is a system where
several things can be done at once, and a more fluid approach is taken to
scheduling time. Unlike Americans and most northern and western European
cultures, Native American, Latin American, Arab and African cultures use the
polychronic system of time.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
These cultures are much less focused on the
preciseness of accounting for each and every moment. As Raymond Cohen notes,
polychronic cultures are deeply steeped in tradition rather than in tasks—a
clear difference from their monochronic counterparts. Cohen notes that
"Traditional societies have all the time in the world. The arbitrary
divisions of the clock face have little saliency in cultures grounded in the cycle
of the seasons, the invariant pattern of rural life, and the calendar of
religious festivities" (Cohen, 1997, p. 34).</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Instead, their culture is more focused on
relationships, rather than watching the clock. They have no problem being
“late” for an event if they are with family or friends, because the
relationship is what really matters. As a result, polychronic cultures have a
much less formal perception of time. They are not ruled by precise calendars
and schedules. Rather, “cultures that use the polychronic time system often
schedule multiple appointments simultaneously so keeping on schedule is an
impossibility.” </div>
Polychronic cultures include Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Mexico, the Philippines,
India, and many in Africa.<br />
<b>Movement and body position<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<b>Kinesics<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The term "kinesics" was first used (in
1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist who wished to study how people
communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and movement. Part of
Birdwhistell's work involved making films of people in social situations and
analyzing them to show different levels of communication not clearly seen
otherwise. Several other anthropologists, including Margaret Mead and Gregory
Bateson, also studied kinesics.</div>
<b>Haptics: touching in communication<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
A high five is an example of communicative touch.
Haptics is the study of touching as nonverbal communication, and haptic
communication refers to how people and other animals communicate via touching.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Touches among humans that can be defined as
communication include handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips, hand),
back slapping, high fives, a pat on the shoulder, and brushing an arm. Touching
of oneself may include licking, picking, holding, and scratching. These
behaviors are referred to as "adapters" or "tells" and may
send messages that reveal the intentions or feelings of a communicator. The
meaning conveyed from touch is highly dependent upon the culture, the context
of the situation, the relationship between communicators, and the manner of
touch.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Touch is an extremely important sense for humans;
as well as providing information about surfaces and textures it is a component
of nonverbal communication in interpersonal relationships, and vital in
conveying physical intimacy. It can be both sexual (such as kissing) and
platonic (such as hugging or tickling).</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Touch is the earliest sense to develop in the
fetus. The development of an infant's haptic senses and how it relates to the
development of the other senses such as vision have been the target of much
research. Human babies have been observed to have enormous difficulty surviving
if they do not possess a sense of touch, even if they retain sight and hearing.
Babies who can perceive through touch, even without sight and hearing, tend to
fare much better. Touch can be thought of as a basic sense in that most life
forms have a response to being touched, while only a subset have sight and
hearing.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In chimpanzees the sense of touch is highly
developed. As newborns they see and hear poorly but cling strongly to their
mothers. Harry Harlow conducted a controversial study involving rhesus monkeys
and observed that monkeys reared with a "terry cloth mother," a wire
feeding apparatus wrapped in soft terry cloth that provided a level of tactile
stimulation and comfort, were considerably more emotionally stable as adults
than those with a mere wire mother.(Harlow,1958)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Touching is treated differently from one country
to another and socially acceptable levels of touching vary from one culture to
another (Remland, 2009). In Thai culture, for example, touching someone's head
may be thought rude. Remland and Jones (1995) studied groups of people
communicating and found that touching was rare among the English (8%), the
French (5%) and the Dutch (4%) compared to Italians (14%) and Greeks (12.5%).</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Striking, pushing, pulling, pinching, kicking,
strangling and hand-to-hand fighting are forms of touch in the context of
physical abuse. In a sentence like "I never touched him/her" or
"Don't you dare touch him/her," the term touch may be meant as a
euphemism for either physical abuse or sexual touching. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Stoeltje (2003) wrote about how Americans are
"losing touch" with this important communication skill. During a
study conducted by University of Miami School of Medicine, Touch Research
Institutes, American children were said to be more aggressive than their French
counterparts while playing at a playground. It was noted that French women
touched their children more.</div>
<b>Functions of nonverbal communication<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Argyle (1970) put forward the hypothesis that
whereas spoken language is normally used for communicating information about
events external to the speakers, non-verbal codes are used to establish and
maintain interpersonal relationships. It is considered more polite or nicer to
communicate attitudes towards others non-verbally rather than verbally, for
instance in order to avoid embarrassing situations.</div>
Argyle (1988) concluded there are five primary functions of nonverbal bodily
behavior in human communication:<br />
</div>
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<div class="Section10">
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: 220.5pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Express emotions</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Express interpersonal attitudes</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->To accompany speech in managing the cues of
interaction between speakers and listeners</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Self-presentation of one’s personality</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Rituals (greetings)</div>
</div>
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</span>
In regards to expressing interpersonal attitudes, humans communicate interpersonal
closeness through a series of nonverbal actions known as immediacy behaviors.
Examples of immediacy behaviors are smiling, touching, open body positions, and
eye contact. Cultures that display these immediacy behaviors are considered
high-contact cultures.<br />
<b>Interaction of verbal and nonverbal communication<o:p></o:p></b><br />
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When communicating, nonverbal messages can
interact with verbal messages in six ways: repeating, conflicting,
complementing, substituting, regulating and accenting/moderating. Conflicting
Verbal and nonverbal messages within the same interaction can sometimes send
opposing or conflicting messages. A person verbally expressing a statement of
truth while simultaneously fidgeting or avoiding eye contact may convey a mixed
message to the receiver in the interaction. Conflicting messages may occur for
a variety of reasons often stemming from feelings of uncertainty, ambivalence,
or frustration. When mixed messages occur, nonverbal communication becomes the
primary tool people use to attain additional information to clarify the
situation; great attention is placed on bodily movements and positioning when
people perceive mixed messages during interactions</div>
<b>Complementing<o:p></o:p></b><br />
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Accurate interpretation of messages is made
easier when nonverbal and verbal communications complement each other.
Nonverbal cues can be used to elaborate on verbal messages to reinforce the
information sent when trying to achieve communicative goals; messages have been
shown to be remembered better when nonverbal signals affirm the verbal exchange.</div>
<b>Substituting<o:p></o:p></b><br />
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Nonverbal behavior is sometimes used as the sole
channel for communication of a message. People learn to identify facial
expressions, body movements, and body positioning as corresponding with
specific feelings and intentions. Nonverbal signals can be used without verbal
communication to convey messages; when nonverbal behavior does not effectively
communicate a message; verbal methods are used to enhance understanding.</div>
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<b>Nonverbal
communication</b> is the process of sending and receiving messages from another
person. These messages can be conveyed through gestures, engagement, posture,
and even clothing and hygiene. Nonverbal communication can convey a very
different message than a verbal conversation. This can tell someone whether
they are liked, interesting or hated. Nonverbal communication can have meanings
in objects as well. Certain articles in a person’s life can say a lot about
them and can sometimes even talk for them. A person’s handwriting can also tell
a lot about the way they can communicate with others. Nonverbal communication
can be easiest practiced when the two communicators are face to face. The
nonverbal aspect of communication is easiest when the environment is right for
all communicators involved, such as, when the environment is right or the
moment is right. Nonverbal communication is an important aspect in any
conversation skill people are practicing. Nonverbal communication will inhibit
someone to be able to tell other person how they are really feeling without
having to voice any opinions. People can interpret body signals better than
they can talk most of the time.</div>
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Anand Dikshithttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10418845070754235525noreply@blogger.com0